170
7
This means that precipitation and temperature throughout the winter are important factors governing access to pasture, and not only the number of animals (Marin
2003; Benjaminsen et al. 2015; Marin et al. 2020). The anthropologists Bjørklund
(1990) and Paine (2004) have made important contributions to this flexibility discourse. Paine was sharp in his criticism of the Norwegian government’s focus on the
maximum number of reindeer, which he said is written in stone, and does not take
into account the instability of tundra ecology.
In Sámi, there are many concepts that refer to the well-being of reindeer and the
condition of pastures throughout the year. The concept of guohtun, for example is
often used to mean ‘the availability of pastures through snow’ (Eira et al. 2010; Eira
2012). This makes it problematic to translate guohtun simply as ‘pasture’ as the Reindeer
Herding Administration tends to do. So, when the herders say that guohtun is bad this
winter (meaning that the access to the pastures is difficult because of the amounts of
snow and ice), this has been translated in government documents to mean ‘bad pastures’ or ‘overgrazed pastures’. But in bad winters with starving reindeer (which is quite
rare because herders would often give additional feed in these cases such as hay or pellets as in 2020), the pastures do not suffer, because they are hardly grazed.
The indigenous knowledge of the reindeer herders gives in fact a completely different image of reindeer herding than presentations in many scientific publications
(although there are scientific publications supporting this knowledge as well), by
politicians, government officials and the media. In practice, however, the knowledge
of the reindeer pastoralists remains largely invisible and marginalized in public
debates in Norway.
Scientifically, the reindeer overstocking narrative is to a large extent based on
time- series of satellite images of the lichen layers in Finnmark. These time-series
show a reduction in the area covered by lichen in the 1980s and 1990s. In their analysis of reindeer pastures, Johansen and Karlsen (2005) used satellite images from
1973, 1980, 1987, 1996 and 2000. They found that the lichen had covered one third
of the area in 1973 and 1980, but—following a steady decrease—only 6% in 2000.
During the same period, other vegetation types increased. Reduction in the quantity
of lichen coincided with an increase in the reindeer population from the 1970s to
around 1990. Although reindeer numbers decreased again in the 1990s (. Fig. 7.4),
the consensus among many scientists is that increased reindeer numbers are the principal cause of the observed reduction in lichen (e.g. Riseth et al. 2004; Johansen and
Karlsen 2005; Hausner et al. 2011).
A report by Johansen et al. (2014) reconfirmed these views strengthening public
and political opinion in Norway about the need to destock reindeer populations,
especially in Finnmark. The main conclusion in the report, widely publicized in the
media, was that the lichen had covered 19% of the winter pastures in 1987, but only
4% in 2013. The ecological crisis on the winter pastures was confirmed, and there
was urgent need to adopt swift political action. This has further led to the implementation of a strict policy of quotas for each reindeer herding district and individual
reindeer owners based on calculated carrying capacities. Exceeding these quotas
leads to heavy fines and forced slaughter down to the required number of animals.
Chapter 7 · Pastoralists and the State
7
This means that precipitation and temperature throughout the winter are important factors governing access to pasture, and not only the number of animals (Marin
2003; Benjaminsen et al. 2015; Marin et al. 2020). The anthropologists Bjørklund
(1990) and Paine (2004) have made important contributions to this flexibility discourse. Paine was sharp in his criticism of the Norwegian government’s focus on the
maximum number of reindeer, which he said is written in stone, and does not take
into account the instability of tundra ecology.
In Sámi, there are many concepts that refer to the well-being of reindeer and the
condition of pastures throughout the year. The concept of guohtun, for example is
often used to mean ‘the availability of pastures through snow’ (Eira et al. 2010; Eira
2012). This makes it problematic to translate guohtun simply as ‘pasture’ as the Reindeer
Herding Administration tends to do. So, when the herders say that guohtun is bad this
winter (meaning that the access to the pastures is difficult because of the amounts of
snow and ice), this has been translated in government documents to mean ‘bad pastures’ or ‘overgrazed pastures’. But in bad winters with starving reindeer (which is quite
rare because herders would often give additional feed in these cases such as hay or pellets as in 2020), the pastures do not suffer, because they are hardly grazed.
The indigenous knowledge of the reindeer herders gives in fact a completely different image of reindeer herding than presentations in many scientific publications
(although there are scientific publications supporting this knowledge as well), by
politicians, government officials and the media. In practice, however, the knowledge
of the reindeer pastoralists remains largely invisible and marginalized in public
debates in Norway.
Scientifically, the reindeer overstocking narrative is to a large extent based on
time- series of satellite images of the lichen layers in Finnmark. These time-series
show a reduction in the area covered by lichen in the 1980s and 1990s. In their analysis of reindeer pastures, Johansen and Karlsen (2005) used satellite images from
1973, 1980, 1987, 1996 and 2000. They found that the lichen had covered one third
of the area in 1973 and 1980, but—following a steady decrease—only 6% in 2000.
During the same period, other vegetation types increased. Reduction in the quantity
of lichen coincided with an increase in the reindeer population from the 1970s to
around 1990. Although reindeer numbers decreased again in the 1990s (. Fig. 7.4),
the consensus among many scientists is that increased reindeer numbers are the principal cause of the observed reduction in lichen (e.g. Riseth et al. 2004; Johansen and
Karlsen 2005; Hausner et al. 2011).
A report by Johansen et al. (2014) reconfirmed these views strengthening public
and political opinion in Norway about the need to destock reindeer populations,
especially in Finnmark. The main conclusion in the report, widely publicized in the
media, was that the lichen had covered 19% of the winter pastures in 1987, but only
4% in 2013. The ecological crisis on the winter pastures was confirmed, and there
was urgent need to adopt swift political action. This has further led to the implementation of a strict policy of quotas for each reindeer herding district and individual
reindeer owners based on calculated carrying capacities. Exceeding these quotas
leads to heavy fines and forced slaughter down to the required number of animals.
Chapter 7 · Pastoralists and the State