166
7
capacity, which is economically defined and based on the aim of maximizing carcass
weight meaning to maximize meat production per animal. In order to have
4–5-months-old lambs ready for slaughter, it is necessary to have abundant pastures
available. Therefore, the stocking density cannot be high.
In the communal areas, however, which in Namaqualand are generally located in
the same ecological zones as private farms, many small-scale farmers share grazing
land with a high density of livestock on the land, but with relatively few animals per
farmer. This means that it is unrealistic for these farmers to aim only at meat production, which requires large properties in this dry environment. Therefore, communal
farmers do not only have the production of meat as an objective for livestockkeeping. Saving for future unforeseen expenses is probably the most important
objective. Very few of the small-scale farmers have livestock as their only source of
income. Those who are older receive a small pension from the government. Others
are miners, farm workers on commercial farms or have other paid work in urban
areas.
Claims about overgrazing can of course also be empirically correct from a particular ecological perspective. Intensive grazing in the communal areas has obviously
impacted on the species composition, and some species have decreased in prevalence
locally, while others have been favoured by grazing. For example, annual species
increase on areas that are grazed heavily. Some see this type of change as a clear sign
of overgrazing. However, we have in the presentation of this case study from South
Africa tried to show how discussions about overgrazing should not be confined to
technicalities within ecology or agronomy, but must be seen in a broader perspective
that includes issues of economics, livelihoods, rights, justice and values.
Sámi Reindeer Pastoralism in Northern Norway
Discussions about Sámi reindeer herding and overstocking in Finnmark in Northern
Norway have many similarities with the debate in South Africa. Here, we also find
both the modernization discourse and the flexibility discourse. Reinert (2006) says
that the former is rooted in the idea of Fordist mass production, while the latter is
based on the idea of Arctic pastoralism adapting to its environment. The modernization discourse on reindeer herding in Norway is produced by politicians, government
officials, actors proposing new mining or windmill projects, environmentalists and
the media. It says quite simply that through a logic described by the tragedy of the
commons model there are too many reindeer in Finnmark, which results in overstocking and environmental degradation.
Reindeer husbandry is the primary livelihood for over 20 ethnic groups in the
circum- polar Arctic and Sub-Arctic area. In Norway, Finnmark in the far north is
the largest reindeer-herding region, with 150,000–200,000 reindeer and about 2150
reindeer owners of Sámi ethnicity (Benjaminsen et al. 2016). Across most of Norway,
reindeer herding is reserved for people of Sámi ethnicity, and access to this industry
is regulated through a system of licenses to restrict the number of pastoralists.
Chapter 7 · Pastoralists and the State
7
capacity, which is economically defined and based on the aim of maximizing carcass
weight meaning to maximize meat production per animal. In order to have
4–5-months-old lambs ready for slaughter, it is necessary to have abundant pastures
available. Therefore, the stocking density cannot be high.
In the communal areas, however, which in Namaqualand are generally located in
the same ecological zones as private farms, many small-scale farmers share grazing
land with a high density of livestock on the land, but with relatively few animals per
farmer. This means that it is unrealistic for these farmers to aim only at meat production, which requires large properties in this dry environment. Therefore, communal
farmers do not only have the production of meat as an objective for livestockkeeping. Saving for future unforeseen expenses is probably the most important
objective. Very few of the small-scale farmers have livestock as their only source of
income. Those who are older receive a small pension from the government. Others
are miners, farm workers on commercial farms or have other paid work in urban
areas.
Claims about overgrazing can of course also be empirically correct from a particular ecological perspective. Intensive grazing in the communal areas has obviously
impacted on the species composition, and some species have decreased in prevalence
locally, while others have been favoured by grazing. For example, annual species
increase on areas that are grazed heavily. Some see this type of change as a clear sign
of overgrazing. However, we have in the presentation of this case study from South
Africa tried to show how discussions about overgrazing should not be confined to
technicalities within ecology or agronomy, but must be seen in a broader perspective
that includes issues of economics, livelihoods, rights, justice and values.
Sámi Reindeer Pastoralism in Northern Norway
Discussions about Sámi reindeer herding and overstocking in Finnmark in Northern
Norway have many similarities with the debate in South Africa. Here, we also find
both the modernization discourse and the flexibility discourse. Reinert (2006) says
that the former is rooted in the idea of Fordist mass production, while the latter is
based on the idea of Arctic pastoralism adapting to its environment. The modernization discourse on reindeer herding in Norway is produced by politicians, government
officials, actors proposing new mining or windmill projects, environmentalists and
the media. It says quite simply that through a logic described by the tragedy of the
commons model there are too many reindeer in Finnmark, which results in overstocking and environmental degradation.
Reindeer husbandry is the primary livelihood for over 20 ethnic groups in the
circum- polar Arctic and Sub-Arctic area. In Norway, Finnmark in the far north is
the largest reindeer-herding region, with 150,000–200,000 reindeer and about 2150
reindeer owners of Sámi ethnicity (Benjaminsen et al. 2016). Across most of Norway,
reindeer herding is reserved for people of Sámi ethnicity, and access to this industry
is regulated through a system of licenses to restrict the number of pastoralists.
Chapter 7 · Pastoralists and the State