101
4
the area, and many people in Soebatsfontein lost their jobs. Many therefore hoped
that land reform would represent an alternative livelihood. They also felt that they
should have prioritized claims to take over the land when neighbouring farms were
sold, because many of them had worked on these farms, and some also had their
parents or grandparents buried there. Many therefore responded with disbelief when
they learned that these farms would be incorporated in the national park. Since then,
Soebatsfontein received 15,000 hectares through land reform, but this was far less
than their needs. According to the agricultural authorities, this land only had a carrying capacity of 1200 sheep implying that each household could only keep around
40 sheep, while people estimated 150-200 sheep as a minimum amount on which a
family could make a living. By comparison, white farmers in Namaqualand have
between 500 and several thousand sheep on each farm (Benjaminsen et al. 2008).
To summarize, Namaqua National Park is a case of a fortress conservation practice in a recently established park, despite powerful actors’ presentation of it within
the framework of the win-win discourse on protected areas.
Tiger Conservation in India
In 2020, India has around 3000 tigers, which is more than a doubling since 2006, and
which represent 80% of the global tiger population. To conserve this important species, the Indian government has established 50 tiger reserves that together cover
2.08% of the country’s land area. In 2013, more than 51,000 families in 787 villages
still lived in the tiger reserves, while about 8000 families had been relocated to other
areas. Most people living in the reserves are Adivasis who are indigenous tribal forest
dependent communities. They constitute about 8% of India’s population (Rai et al.
2019).
The successful conservation of tigers is also a result of a renewed international
interest in tiger conservation. The World Bank has for example committed support
for tiger conservation by establishing the Global Tiger Initiative, which aims to
attract investments into tiger conservation at a large-scale combining tourism with
income from carbon credits and other valuations of and payments for ecosystem
services. This has been backed by donor commitments at the Tiger Summit held in
Russia in 2010 to the tune of 33 million British pounds for countries with tiger populations.
Economic valuation of ecosystem services is a key tool used to support a winwin discourse on tiger conservation and community benefits. In two studies commissioned by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (Verma et al. 2015,
2019) the Total Economic Value of tiger reserves has been calculated. These studies claim to ‘make visible’ the hidden economic value of conserving forests as
important tiger habitats in terms of ecosystem services such as pollination, carbon and water storage, preventing soil erosion, and the protection of genes for
potential pharmaceutical developments. In addition to this comes potential
income from tourism.
4.4 · Challenges to the Win-Win Discourse
4
the area, and many people in Soebatsfontein lost their jobs. Many therefore hoped
that land reform would represent an alternative livelihood. They also felt that they
should have prioritized claims to take over the land when neighbouring farms were
sold, because many of them had worked on these farms, and some also had their
parents or grandparents buried there. Many therefore responded with disbelief when
they learned that these farms would be incorporated in the national park. Since then,
Soebatsfontein received 15,000 hectares through land reform, but this was far less
than their needs. According to the agricultural authorities, this land only had a carrying capacity of 1200 sheep implying that each household could only keep around
40 sheep, while people estimated 150-200 sheep as a minimum amount on which a
family could make a living. By comparison, white farmers in Namaqualand have
between 500 and several thousand sheep on each farm (Benjaminsen et al. 2008).
To summarize, Namaqua National Park is a case of a fortress conservation practice in a recently established park, despite powerful actors’ presentation of it within
the framework of the win-win discourse on protected areas.
Tiger Conservation in India
In 2020, India has around 3000 tigers, which is more than a doubling since 2006, and
which represent 80% of the global tiger population. To conserve this important species, the Indian government has established 50 tiger reserves that together cover
2.08% of the country’s land area. In 2013, more than 51,000 families in 787 villages
still lived in the tiger reserves, while about 8000 families had been relocated to other
areas. Most people living in the reserves are Adivasis who are indigenous tribal forest
dependent communities. They constitute about 8% of India’s population (Rai et al.
2019).
The successful conservation of tigers is also a result of a renewed international
interest in tiger conservation. The World Bank has for example committed support
for tiger conservation by establishing the Global Tiger Initiative, which aims to
attract investments into tiger conservation at a large-scale combining tourism with
income from carbon credits and other valuations of and payments for ecosystem
services. This has been backed by donor commitments at the Tiger Summit held in
Russia in 2010 to the tune of 33 million British pounds for countries with tiger populations.
Economic valuation of ecosystem services is a key tool used to support a winwin discourse on tiger conservation and community benefits. In two studies commissioned by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (Verma et al. 2015,
2019) the Total Economic Value of tiger reserves has been calculated. These studies claim to ‘make visible’ the hidden economic value of conserving forests as
important tiger habitats in terms of ecosystem services such as pollination, carbon and water storage, preventing soil erosion, and the protection of genes for
potential pharmaceutical developments. In addition to this comes potential
income from tourism.
4.4 · Challenges to the Win-Win Discourse