451
Fig. 17.1 (continued) active (x-axis). For airborne data, it was assumed that theoretically, data
can be available for the past although these data will be very sparse and not easily accessible. In all
cases, highest possible spatial and temporal resolutions are shown. This might not be the case for
all bands covered by these sensors. Where satellites are currently active or proposed, they are presented here as being active into the future; this is subject to change and should be reviewed frequently. Codes after sensor names: “not continuous, ∗∗ ATSR-1/2 also contained a Microwave
(MW) sensor, ∗^ 16-day revisit with one satellite, 8 days if using data from both, ∗^∗ 2 satellites
proposed—details specific to Biosphere observations, ∗∗∗ Film and digital. Green and red boxes
refer to the examples given in the text, enclosing MODIS and ALOS PALSAR sensors. Other than
Kite, UAV, and declared airborne methods, all instruments are either satellites or sensors carried by
a satellite. Many satellites have a payload of a range of instruments; where this is the case, hyperspectral or multispectral units have been presented. Many satellites also carry panchromatic sensors, which are not represented in this figure. (For more information, see Toth and Jóźków et al.
(2016) and Khorram et al. (2016))
17.2 Ecosystem Functioning
Pettorelli et al.’s (2017) framework for monitoring ecosystem functions at all scales
lends itself well to the flexibilities and strengths provided by RS. We consider ecosystem functions as those attributes related to the performance of an ecosystem that
are the consequence of one or more ecosystem processes (Lovett et al. 2005). With
respect to plant diversity, the attributes underpinning functions that benefit plant
species (and indirectly fauna and humans) are crucial. Such functions include pollination, water regulation, disturbance regulation, supporting habitats, and biological control. The measurement and monitoring of these ecosystem functions often
relies on a remotely sensed proxy. For example, the ecosystem function of greenhouse gas regulation could be monitored with RS-based measurements of emissions
from fires, as provided by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) and expected from missions such as Environmental Mapping and Analysis
Program (EnMap) and the Surface Biology and Geology imaging spectrometer
(currently under planning to replace the cancelled HyspIRI mission). The advantage
of such sensors is their moderate to high spatial and temporal resolution that creates
dense time series. Analyzing ecosystem functions over large scales can provide
information on drivers of species diversity and abundance change, as well as aspects
that affect human well-being such as those related to ecosystem services (ES).
Ecosystems provide regulating, provisioning, and cultural and supporting services
to society, such as nutrient regulation, the provision of food, and waste treatment
(De Groot et al. 2002; Ma 2005). Detailed techniques for mapping ES at large
scales (Englund et al. 2017) and rapid assessments (Meyer et al. 2015; Cerreta and
Poli 2017) are discussed elsewhere. Although ES functions and processes are
closely related, “services” implies inherent contributions to humans and an attached
monetary or cultural value (De Groot et al. 2002). All ESs are under increasing
threat due to pollution, overexploitation, land use change, and climate change, with
concerns of overstepping the “safe operating space for humanity” (Rockström
et al. 2009).
We choose to focus on a few contrasting ecosystem functions in this chapter,
with particular focus on those that plants provide or require for survival and fitness;
17 Integrating Biodiversity, Remote Sensing, and Auxiliary Information for the Study…
Fig. 17.1 (continued) active (x-axis). For airborne data, it was assumed that theoretically, data
can be available for the past although these data will be very sparse and not easily accessible. In all
cases, highest possible spatial and temporal resolutions are shown. This might not be the case for
all bands covered by these sensors. Where satellites are currently active or proposed, they are presented here as being active into the future; this is subject to change and should be reviewed frequently. Codes after sensor names: “not continuous, ∗∗ ATSR-1/2 also contained a Microwave
(MW) sensor, ∗^ 16-day revisit with one satellite, 8 days if using data from both, ∗^∗ 2 satellites
proposed—details specific to Biosphere observations, ∗∗∗ Film and digital. Green and red boxes
refer to the examples given in the text, enclosing MODIS and ALOS PALSAR sensors. Other than
Kite, UAV, and declared airborne methods, all instruments are either satellites or sensors carried by
a satellite. Many satellites have a payload of a range of instruments; where this is the case, hyperspectral or multispectral units have been presented. Many satellites also carry panchromatic sensors, which are not represented in this figure. (For more information, see Toth and Jóźków et al.
(2016) and Khorram et al. (2016))
17.2 Ecosystem Functioning
Pettorelli et al.’s (2017) framework for monitoring ecosystem functions at all scales
lends itself well to the flexibilities and strengths provided by RS. We consider ecosystem functions as those attributes related to the performance of an ecosystem that
are the consequence of one or more ecosystem processes (Lovett et al. 2005). With
respect to plant diversity, the attributes underpinning functions that benefit plant
species (and indirectly fauna and humans) are crucial. Such functions include pollination, water regulation, disturbance regulation, supporting habitats, and biological control. The measurement and monitoring of these ecosystem functions often
relies on a remotely sensed proxy. For example, the ecosystem function of greenhouse gas regulation could be monitored with RS-based measurements of emissions
from fires, as provided by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) and expected from missions such as Environmental Mapping and Analysis
Program (EnMap) and the Surface Biology and Geology imaging spectrometer
(currently under planning to replace the cancelled HyspIRI mission). The advantage
of such sensors is their moderate to high spatial and temporal resolution that creates
dense time series. Analyzing ecosystem functions over large scales can provide
information on drivers of species diversity and abundance change, as well as aspects
that affect human well-being such as those related to ecosystem services (ES).
Ecosystems provide regulating, provisioning, and cultural and supporting services
to society, such as nutrient regulation, the provision of food, and waste treatment
(De Groot et al. 2002; Ma 2005). Detailed techniques for mapping ES at large
scales (Englund et al. 2017) and rapid assessments (Meyer et al. 2015; Cerreta and
Poli 2017) are discussed elsewhere. Although ES functions and processes are
closely related, “services” implies inherent contributions to humans and an attached
monetary or cultural value (De Groot et al. 2002). All ESs are under increasing
threat due to pollution, overexploitation, land use change, and climate change, with
concerns of overstepping the “safe operating space for humanity” (Rockström
et al. 2009).
We choose to focus on a few contrasting ecosystem functions in this chapter,
with particular focus on those that plants provide or require for survival and fitness;
17 Integrating Biodiversity, Remote Sensing, and Auxiliary Information for the Study…