235
Satellite-derived rainfall products are estimated through a combination of measurements, including surface reflectance of clouds (i.e., cloud coverage, type, and
top temperature), passive microwave (i.e., column precipitation content, cloud water
and ice, rain intensity and type), and lightning sensors. The Tropical Rainfall
Measurement Mission (TRMM) operated from 1997 to 2015, providing information on rainfall amount and intensity and lightning activity globally every 3 hours at
5 km resolution from 38°N to 38°S. As a follow-up to TRMM, the Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission relies on a constellation of satellites,
including a core GPM observatory, to produce 0.1° resolution data every 30 minutes
from 60°N to 60°S. Initiated in 2014, GPM allows new explorations of extreme
weather events. Like MODIS temperature measurements, TRMM and GPM precipitation measures have been directly incorporated into ecological research (e.g.,
Deblauwe et al. 2016) and used to inform modeled climate products like the Climate
Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station data product (CHIRPS; Funk
et al. 2015).
There is also a broad set of efforts to generate reanalysis products that combine
the history of Earth observations to develop temporally and spatially consistent
global models of climatic and environmental variables. For instance, the NASA
Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) models close to 800 radiative and physical properties of the Earth’s atmosphere at 3- to
6-hour time steps from 1979 to present at ~50 km spatial resolution (Rienecker et al.
2011). While this obviously sacrifices spatial resolution, these efforts open the door
for longer-term analysis of climatic influence on biologic phenomena.
One commonly overlooked source of geologic substrate lies in the atmosphere.
Airborne dust particles provide an essential source of nutrients in many environments and can originate from sources hundreds to thousands of miles away
(Chadwick et al. 1999). Aeolian transport of phosphorus from North Africa to South
America is thought to be an important driver of Amazonian productivity (e.g., Okin
et al. 2004). Studies have mapped dust sources and rates using MODIS products
(Ginoux et al. 2012) and produced 3-D models of dust transportation using LiDAR
on the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation
(CALIPSO) satellite (Yu et al. 2015). Furthermore, the SeaWinds instrument on the
Quick Scatterometer (QuickSCAT) satellite and the subsequent Rapid Scatterometer
(RapidSCAT) aboard the International Space Station measures wind speed and
direction over the ocean’s surface.
10.3.3 Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consists of the water on, in, and above Earth’s surface and is
known to have a large influence in structuring riparian and aquatic communities of
organisms (reviewed by Atkinson et al. 2017). The hydrosphere interacts with other
types of geodiversity in the lithosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere. Topography
alone can be used to indirectly provide a crude estimate of many hydrological
10 Remote Sensing of Geodiversity as a Link to Biodiversity
Satellite-derived rainfall products are estimated through a combination of measurements, including surface reflectance of clouds (i.e., cloud coverage, type, and
top temperature), passive microwave (i.e., column precipitation content, cloud water
and ice, rain intensity and type), and lightning sensors. The Tropical Rainfall
Measurement Mission (TRMM) operated from 1997 to 2015, providing information on rainfall amount and intensity and lightning activity globally every 3 hours at
5 km resolution from 38°N to 38°S. As a follow-up to TRMM, the Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission relies on a constellation of satellites,
including a core GPM observatory, to produce 0.1° resolution data every 30 minutes
from 60°N to 60°S. Initiated in 2014, GPM allows new explorations of extreme
weather events. Like MODIS temperature measurements, TRMM and GPM precipitation measures have been directly incorporated into ecological research (e.g.,
Deblauwe et al. 2016) and used to inform modeled climate products like the Climate
Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station data product (CHIRPS; Funk
et al. 2015).
There is also a broad set of efforts to generate reanalysis products that combine
the history of Earth observations to develop temporally and spatially consistent
global models of climatic and environmental variables. For instance, the NASA
Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) models close to 800 radiative and physical properties of the Earth’s atmosphere at 3- to
6-hour time steps from 1979 to present at ~50 km spatial resolution (Rienecker et al.
2011). While this obviously sacrifices spatial resolution, these efforts open the door
for longer-term analysis of climatic influence on biologic phenomena.
One commonly overlooked source of geologic substrate lies in the atmosphere.
Airborne dust particles provide an essential source of nutrients in many environments and can originate from sources hundreds to thousands of miles away
(Chadwick et al. 1999). Aeolian transport of phosphorus from North Africa to South
America is thought to be an important driver of Amazonian productivity (e.g., Okin
et al. 2004). Studies have mapped dust sources and rates using MODIS products
(Ginoux et al. 2012) and produced 3-D models of dust transportation using LiDAR
on the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation
(CALIPSO) satellite (Yu et al. 2015). Furthermore, the SeaWinds instrument on the
Quick Scatterometer (QuickSCAT) satellite and the subsequent Rapid Scatterometer
(RapidSCAT) aboard the International Space Station measures wind speed and
direction over the ocean’s surface.
10.3.3 Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consists of the water on, in, and above Earth’s surface and is
known to have a large influence in structuring riparian and aquatic communities of
organisms (reviewed by Atkinson et al. 2017). The hydrosphere interacts with other
types of geodiversity in the lithosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere. Topography
alone can be used to indirectly provide a crude estimate of many hydrological
10 Remote Sensing of Geodiversity as a Link to Biodiversity