been launched until 2018. In 1990, the first European sounding rocket MAXUS
was launched, followed by the first MiniTEXUS rocket in 1993. With Mapheus
(Materialphysikalische Experimente unter Schwerelosigkeit), DLR started another
rocket program in 2009. The research rockets are launched from the European rocket
launch site ESRANGE near Kiruna in Northern Sweden. On its ballistic flight,
microgravity conditions in a range of 10
À4 g last for about 3.5 min on a MiniTEXUS
flight, about 6 min on a TEXUS/Mapheus flight and about 13 min on a MAXUS
flight. The payload part of the rocket consisting of the Experiment Modules and the
Recovery and Service System decends on a parachute and samples are transported
back to the science labs at the launch site within 1–2 h by helicopter. Scientists can
directly monitor and control their experiments via telecommanding. Especially
appreciated by biologists is the late access allowing a loading of samples into the
payload only a few hours before launch and early retrieval of samples after landing.
Hence, a broad spectrum of basic biological and biomedical research was performed
with a variety of organisms, in most cases accompanied by centrifugation control
experiments to assess the influence of launch vibrations and accelerations in a range
of 6–12 g.
Alternatively, longer and more flat parabolas with a suborbital trajectory up to an
altitude of 100 km can be flown providing a continuous microgravity environment
for about 3 min. With such suborbital platforms, several US companies are aiming
to make microgravity experience available to space tourists. Such a commercial
platform might also add to the spectrum of microgravity research platforms;
however, the reliability and acceptability for space biology experiments still needs
to be demonstrated. Some considerations on this topic have been published e.g. by
Karmali and Shelhamer (2010).
2.4.4 Orbital Platforms—Space Shuttle, Satellites
and the International Space Station
Long-term effects of microgravity in the range of weeks or months can only be
studied in low Earth orbit on board of satellites and human-tended space laboratories such as NASA’s Space shuttles (which retired in 2011), Russian space
stations and the International Space Station ISS. In 1957 the dog Laika was the
first animal astronaut that surrounded Earth onboard a Sputnik-2 satellite. Laika did
not survive but two other dogs following in Sputnik-5 provided evidence that living
organisms can survive in low Earth orbit. Since then, numerous Russian Bion
satellites and American biosatellites housed a great variety of animals like snails,
worms, spiders, bees, frogs, fish, birds, mice and rats and all kinds of higher plants,
fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns and microorganisms. Even complex live support
systems have been developed and tested, which will increasingly become important
22
2 Methods for Gravitational Biology Research
was launched, followed by the first MiniTEXUS rocket in 1993. With Mapheus
(Materialphysikalische Experimente unter Schwerelosigkeit), DLR started another
rocket program in 2009. The research rockets are launched from the European rocket
launch site ESRANGE near Kiruna in Northern Sweden. On its ballistic flight,
microgravity conditions in a range of 10
À4 g last for about 3.5 min on a MiniTEXUS
flight, about 6 min on a TEXUS/Mapheus flight and about 13 min on a MAXUS
flight. The payload part of the rocket consisting of the Experiment Modules and the
Recovery and Service System decends on a parachute and samples are transported
back to the science labs at the launch site within 1–2 h by helicopter. Scientists can
directly monitor and control their experiments via telecommanding. Especially
appreciated by biologists is the late access allowing a loading of samples into the
payload only a few hours before launch and early retrieval of samples after landing.
Hence, a broad spectrum of basic biological and biomedical research was performed
with a variety of organisms, in most cases accompanied by centrifugation control
experiments to assess the influence of launch vibrations and accelerations in a range
of 6–12 g.
Alternatively, longer and more flat parabolas with a suborbital trajectory up to an
altitude of 100 km can be flown providing a continuous microgravity environment
for about 3 min. With such suborbital platforms, several US companies are aiming
to make microgravity experience available to space tourists. Such a commercial
platform might also add to the spectrum of microgravity research platforms;
however, the reliability and acceptability for space biology experiments still needs
to be demonstrated. Some considerations on this topic have been published e.g. by
Karmali and Shelhamer (2010).
2.4.4 Orbital Platforms—Space Shuttle, Satellites
and the International Space Station
Long-term effects of microgravity in the range of weeks or months can only be
studied in low Earth orbit on board of satellites and human-tended space laboratories such as NASA’s Space shuttles (which retired in 2011), Russian space
stations and the International Space Station ISS. In 1957 the dog Laika was the
first animal astronaut that surrounded Earth onboard a Sputnik-2 satellite. Laika did
not survive but two other dogs following in Sputnik-5 provided evidence that living
organisms can survive in low Earth orbit. Since then, numerous Russian Bion
satellites and American biosatellites housed a great variety of animals like snails,
worms, spiders, bees, frogs, fish, birds, mice and rats and all kinds of higher plants,
fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns and microorganisms. Even complex live support
systems have been developed and tested, which will increasingly become important
22
2 Methods for Gravitational Biology Research