Material
TMR (t/t Material) Global Production (t) TMR (Mt/year) References
Sand and gravel
1.18
8,000,000,000
9440
(2)
Hard coal
2
3,740,000,000
8826
(2)
Phosphate
34
130,000,000
4420
(2)
Gold
1,800,000
2445
4401
(1)
Crude oil
1.22
3,485,000,000
4252
(2)
Copper
300
12,900,000
3870
(1)
Iron
5.1
571,000,000
2912
(1)
Silver
7500
160,000
1200
(1)
Uranium
11,000
45,807
504
(1)
Lead
95
2,980,000
283
(1)
Platinum
1,400,000
178
249
(1)
Aluminum
10
23,900,000
239
(2)
Sources: (1) Halada, K. et al. 2001. Journal of the Japan Institute of Metals, 65(7), 564–570.
(2) Schmidt-Bleek, F. 1998. Das MIPS-Konzept, Droemer Knaur, München.
152
Permeable Reactive Barrier
as energy or other resources. The hidden flows for metals related to metal
ore mining have been investigated by Halada et al. (2001). Table 9.1 lists the
data for some metals, together with the data for some other minerals and
fuels. The TMR in the United States in the 1990s was between 80 and 100
tonnes per capita; in the European Union (EU-15) approximately 50 tonnes
per capita (Bringezu 2002).
Although the TMR concept is widely accepted, there are no economic
incentives to reduce TMR because the cost associated with the hidden flows
is usually not known. However, such external costs can be calculated from
the cost of the remediation for the former German uranium mining sites.
In the western world uranium mining started in 1945 and reached a first
maximum in 1957 and a second one in 1977, see Figure 9.1. Production of uranium from mining then decreased because fuel for nuclear power plants was
partly produced by reprocessing nuclear weapons material. The cumulative
global uranium production until 2004 was more than 2.5 million tonnes
with Canada and the United States contributing more than 300,000 tonnes
each and Germany more than 200,000 tonnes (OECD/NEA 2001, Taylor et al.
2006). The TMR of uranium is 11,000 kg/kg U (see Table 9.1).
After the end of uranium mining in Germany in 1990, remediation started
with a focus on controlled flooding of underground mines, water treatment,
backfilling of open pit mines, and treatment of mine tailings (Gatzweiler
et al. 2002). The total cost for the remediation project was estimated to be
6.5 billion Euro (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie [D]
2000). So far, 4.2 billion Euro has been spent, while the project is scheduled to
end sometime between 2010 and 2015. Based on a total production of 213,809
tonnes of uranium (Taylor et al. 2006) the external costs of uranium mining
TABLE 9.1
TMR of Some Metals, Minerals, and Fuels
TMR (t/t Material) Global Production (t) TMR (Mt/year) References
Sand and gravel
1.18
8,000,000,000
9440
(2)
Hard coal
2
3,740,000,000
8826
(2)
Phosphate
34
130,000,000
4420
(2)
Gold
1,800,000
2445
4401
(1)
Crude oil
1.22
3,485,000,000
4252
(2)
Copper
300
12,900,000
3870
(1)
Iron
5.1
571,000,000
2912
(1)
Silver
7500
160,000
1200
(1)
Uranium
11,000
45,807
504
(1)
Lead
95
2,980,000
283
(1)
Platinum
1,400,000
178
249
(1)
Aluminum
10
23,900,000
239
(2)
Sources: (1) Halada, K. et al. 2001. Journal of the Japan Institute of Metals, 65(7), 564–570.
(2) Schmidt-Bleek, F. 1998. Das MIPS-Konzept, Droemer Knaur, München.
152
Permeable Reactive Barrier
as energy or other resources. The hidden flows for metals related to metal
ore mining have been investigated by Halada et al. (2001). Table 9.1 lists the
data for some metals, together with the data for some other minerals and
fuels. The TMR in the United States in the 1990s was between 80 and 100
tonnes per capita; in the European Union (EU-15) approximately 50 tonnes
per capita (Bringezu 2002).
Although the TMR concept is widely accepted, there are no economic
incentives to reduce TMR because the cost associated with the hidden flows
is usually not known. However, such external costs can be calculated from
the cost of the remediation for the former German uranium mining sites.
In the western world uranium mining started in 1945 and reached a first
maximum in 1957 and a second one in 1977, see Figure 9.1. Production of uranium from mining then decreased because fuel for nuclear power plants was
partly produced by reprocessing nuclear weapons material. The cumulative
global uranium production until 2004 was more than 2.5 million tonnes
with Canada and the United States contributing more than 300,000 tonnes
each and Germany more than 200,000 tonnes (OECD/NEA 2001, Taylor et al.
2006). The TMR of uranium is 11,000 kg/kg U (see Table 9.1).
After the end of uranium mining in Germany in 1990, remediation started
with a focus on controlled flooding of underground mines, water treatment,
backfilling of open pit mines, and treatment of mine tailings (Gatzweiler
et al. 2002). The total cost for the remediation project was estimated to be
6.5 billion Euro (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie [D]
2000). So far, 4.2 billion Euro has been spent, while the project is scheduled to
end sometime between 2010 and 2015. Based on a total production of 213,809
tonnes of uranium (Taylor et al. 2006) the external costs of uranium mining
TABLE 9.1
TMR of Some Metals, Minerals, and Fuels