276 A. Brekke et al.
14.3 Life cycle assessment as method
LCA does not only bring ready- made results for decision- makers to compare
alternatives. When speaking of LCA, one is normally referring to the method,
or procedure, to understand the environmental impacts of products, product
systems or services. Notwithstanding, speaking of “the method” may blur the
issue, since LCA is rather an umbrella term for several methods needed to
translate both the uses of natural resources and the emissions and wastes to the
environment into information about potential environmental harm. This
involves, on the one hand, multiple methods and models connecting elements
in nature; such as wind, chemical composition, uptake of compounds in
organisms and the effect of different compounds on various organisms and
physical systems. On the other hand, it involves guidance on how to model
societal systems such as industrial production, consumers’ use of products,
waste handling after end- of-useful life and on what data are needed. In the
following section, different method issues in LCA are presented, with an
emphasis on those that are relevant to guide governance or that may influence governance if the actors are unaware of their consequences.
14.3.1 The functional unit
One of the first methodological choices of the LCA practitioner is to define a
functional unit. Every LCA is based on an implicit or explicit comparison of
the environmental performance of how a production system is able to fulfil a
certain function. The functional unit should be quantified and enable comparison of different ways to fulfil the same function. This might be difficult
when governing the use of natural resources. The Renewable Energy Directive, for instance, applies a unit of energy – MJ – to compare different fuels.
On the one hand, this unit does not tell how the fuels are able to fulfil a
function, as different engine technologies might need a different amount of
energy in order to produce the same amount of work. On the other hand,
the sole focus on using biomass for fuels does not provide any input on the
ability of the same resources to be put to better use as a food or feed or input
to the manufacture of a material.
14.3.2 Comparability and standardisation
An important aspect of a decision- informing tool is the comparability of
different alternatives. From the great bargainings over selecting global pathways for the future, to the small everyday choices of purchasing an item,
rightful comparison of alternatives is key to correct decisions. This explains
why LCA development work has been intrinsically linked to development of
standards, guidelines and handbooks such the ISO standards, the European
International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook (European Commission – Joint Research Centre – Institute for Environment and
14.3 Life cycle assessment as method
LCA does not only bring ready- made results for decision- makers to compare
alternatives. When speaking of LCA, one is normally referring to the method,
or procedure, to understand the environmental impacts of products, product
systems or services. Notwithstanding, speaking of “the method” may blur the
issue, since LCA is rather an umbrella term for several methods needed to
translate both the uses of natural resources and the emissions and wastes to the
environment into information about potential environmental harm. This
involves, on the one hand, multiple methods and models connecting elements
in nature; such as wind, chemical composition, uptake of compounds in
organisms and the effect of different compounds on various organisms and
physical systems. On the other hand, it involves guidance on how to model
societal systems such as industrial production, consumers’ use of products,
waste handling after end- of-useful life and on what data are needed. In the
following section, different method issues in LCA are presented, with an
emphasis on those that are relevant to guide governance or that may influence governance if the actors are unaware of their consequences.
14.3.1 The functional unit
One of the first methodological choices of the LCA practitioner is to define a
functional unit. Every LCA is based on an implicit or explicit comparison of
the environmental performance of how a production system is able to fulfil a
certain function. The functional unit should be quantified and enable comparison of different ways to fulfil the same function. This might be difficult
when governing the use of natural resources. The Renewable Energy Directive, for instance, applies a unit of energy – MJ – to compare different fuels.
On the one hand, this unit does not tell how the fuels are able to fulfil a
function, as different engine technologies might need a different amount of
energy in order to produce the same amount of work. On the other hand,
the sole focus on using biomass for fuels does not provide any input on the
ability of the same resources to be put to better use as a food or feed or input
to the manufacture of a material.
14.3.2 Comparability and standardisation
An important aspect of a decision- informing tool is the comparability of
different alternatives. From the great bargainings over selecting global pathways for the future, to the small everyday choices of purchasing an item,
rightful comparison of alternatives is key to correct decisions. This explains
why LCA development work has been intrinsically linked to development of
standards, guidelines and handbooks such the ISO standards, the European
International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook (European Commission – Joint Research Centre – Institute for Environment and