3
Chapter 1
Systems and Ecosystems
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF SYSTEM
The term system is used in many different contexts. Reference is made,
inter alia, to natural, organic, social, ideological, political, cultural, religious, administrative, legislative, monetary, urban-planning, industrial,
agricultural, insurance, healthcare, education, power, and computer and
communications systems.
The scientific use of the term comes from physics, and more specifically
from thermodynamics, where a system is defined as the portion of the universe that we are considering, in contrast to the environment, which is the
rest of the universe. The widespread use of systems in many sciences , as far
back as 1950, was based on General Systems Theory, a separate branch
of science that includes a set of mathematical methods. Its purpose is to
search for the general properties and features of the behaviour of systems.
It was founded by Canadian theoretical biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy.
Analogous to General Systems Theory is the approach of cybernetics, which
is defined as the science of control and communication in animals and
machines. It was developed by American mathematician Norbert Wiener
in 1948.
One definition of a system is a finite set of interacting parts, which can
be considered to be a unit. It should be noted that:
• A system has limits; it cannot be infinite.
• It consists of different parts, which may be concrete or abstract, simple
or complex.
• There must be interaction among its parts. Some authors require that
such interaction be non-repetitive or non-linear.
• One prerequisite is for the system to create a new entity, at a level of
description different from the level where its parts are described. This
means that the connection among its parts is not merely cumulative
but creative, i.e. it produces new features and properties (Figure 1.1).
DOI: 10.1201/b14609-1
Chapter 1
Systems and Ecosystems
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF SYSTEM
The term system is used in many different contexts. Reference is made,
inter alia, to natural, organic, social, ideological, political, cultural, religious, administrative, legislative, monetary, urban-planning, industrial,
agricultural, insurance, healthcare, education, power, and computer and
communications systems.
The scientific use of the term comes from physics, and more specifically
from thermodynamics, where a system is defined as the portion of the universe that we are considering, in contrast to the environment, which is the
rest of the universe. The widespread use of systems in many sciences , as far
back as 1950, was based on General Systems Theory, a separate branch
of science that includes a set of mathematical methods. Its purpose is to
search for the general properties and features of the behaviour of systems.
It was founded by Canadian theoretical biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy.
Analogous to General Systems Theory is the approach of cybernetics, which
is defined as the science of control and communication in animals and
machines. It was developed by American mathematician Norbert Wiener
in 1948.
One definition of a system is a finite set of interacting parts, which can
be considered to be a unit. It should be noted that:
• A system has limits; it cannot be infinite.
• It consists of different parts, which may be concrete or abstract, simple
or complex.
• There must be interaction among its parts. Some authors require that
such interaction be non-repetitive or non-linear.
• One prerequisite is for the system to create a new entity, at a level of
description different from the level where its parts are described. This
means that the connection among its parts is not merely cumulative
but creative, i.e. it produces new features and properties (Figure 1.1).
DOI: 10.1201/b14609-1