producing bacterium is an eco-friendly microorganism that can manage the target
pest efficiently (Roh et al. 2007; Jouzani et al. 2017). Several microbial pesticides
which are currently used in Iran are made from different subspecies or varieties of
B. thuringiensis. Other bacteria that have been exploited as pesticides are Bacillus
subtilis and Pseudomonas fluorecens (Table 14.1).
14.3.2 Fungal Biopesticides
The second most important group of microbial pesticides in Iran consists of fungi.
However, the significance of fungi for controlling insect pests, plant-parasitic fungi
(Juty and Singh 2016) and phytonematodes (Cumagun and Moosavi 2015) has been
rapidly increasing in the recent years. Some fungal characteristics which make them
an attractive substrate for research are: host specificity, cosmopolitan dispersal,
persistency, occasional production of stress resistant resting spores, the relative
simplicity of mass culture and ease of application in the field (Juty and Singh
2016). Trichoderma–based products are the most numerous microbial products in
Iran that are used against soil borne pathogenic fungi. Other fungal-based products
that have been used as microbial biocontrol agents are Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium anisopliae, Purpureocillium lilacinum, Lecanicillium lecanii and
Fusarium oxysporum (Table 14.1).
14.4 Challenges for Growers
Notwithstanding the efforts of the government during successive OUFP national
programs, the reliance of growers upon chemical inputs has not decreased significantly. The number of pilot farms in IPM/FFS programs throughout the country was
not adequate enough to successfully launch the “biological control” in the farmers’
mind as an important part of IPM. Many independent studies have been tried to
investigate the barriers to adoption of organic agriculture among Iranian farmers
(Veisi et al. 2010; Rezvanfar et al. 2011; Karimi 2011; Soltani et al. 2014; Veisi et al.
2017; Forouzani et al. 2018). Several factors have been involved in hindering the
implementation of microbial biopesticides by Iranian growers. The main reasons for
this reluctance are almost similar to those in developing countries.
Farmers’ mistrust of microbial biopesticides (Mishra et al. 2015), fear of reduced
yield (Moosavi and Zare 2016) and weak support of policy network (Kumar and
Singh 2015) are among the main reasons. As most Iranian growers are smallholders,
they only adopt new controlling methods if they are being completely convinced
those methods are risk-free (Rezaei-Moghaddam and Samiee 2019).
In contrast with chemical pesticides, microbial ones lack consistency in their
effectiveness. Lack of persistency usually occurs because of the inability to
get established in or on the target site due to low competitive capability against the
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M. R. Moosavi and V. Minassian
pest efficiently (Roh et al. 2007; Jouzani et al. 2017). Several microbial pesticides
which are currently used in Iran are made from different subspecies or varieties of
B. thuringiensis. Other bacteria that have been exploited as pesticides are Bacillus
subtilis and Pseudomonas fluorecens (Table 14.1).
14.3.2 Fungal Biopesticides
The second most important group of microbial pesticides in Iran consists of fungi.
However, the significance of fungi for controlling insect pests, plant-parasitic fungi
(Juty and Singh 2016) and phytonematodes (Cumagun and Moosavi 2015) has been
rapidly increasing in the recent years. Some fungal characteristics which make them
an attractive substrate for research are: host specificity, cosmopolitan dispersal,
persistency, occasional production of stress resistant resting spores, the relative
simplicity of mass culture and ease of application in the field (Juty and Singh
2016). Trichoderma–based products are the most numerous microbial products in
Iran that are used against soil borne pathogenic fungi. Other fungal-based products
that have been used as microbial biocontrol agents are Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium anisopliae, Purpureocillium lilacinum, Lecanicillium lecanii and
Fusarium oxysporum (Table 14.1).
14.4 Challenges for Growers
Notwithstanding the efforts of the government during successive OUFP national
programs, the reliance of growers upon chemical inputs has not decreased significantly. The number of pilot farms in IPM/FFS programs throughout the country was
not adequate enough to successfully launch the “biological control” in the farmers’
mind as an important part of IPM. Many independent studies have been tried to
investigate the barriers to adoption of organic agriculture among Iranian farmers
(Veisi et al. 2010; Rezvanfar et al. 2011; Karimi 2011; Soltani et al. 2014; Veisi et al.
2017; Forouzani et al. 2018). Several factors have been involved in hindering the
implementation of microbial biopesticides by Iranian growers. The main reasons for
this reluctance are almost similar to those in developing countries.
Farmers’ mistrust of microbial biopesticides (Mishra et al. 2015), fear of reduced
yield (Moosavi and Zare 2016) and weak support of policy network (Kumar and
Singh 2015) are among the main reasons. As most Iranian growers are smallholders,
they only adopt new controlling methods if they are being completely convinced
those methods are risk-free (Rezaei-Moghaddam and Samiee 2019).
In contrast with chemical pesticides, microbial ones lack consistency in their
effectiveness. Lack of persistency usually occurs because of the inability to
get established in or on the target site due to low competitive capability against the
542
M. R. Moosavi and V. Minassian