3 h post injection. Plasmatocytes, granulocytes and vermicytes engulf foreign
particles to form phagocytosis and nodule. Phagocytosis occurred within less than
1 h after injection, but nodulation happened in 3–6 h post injection. There was a
correlation between phenoloxidase activity and total hemocyte count. Phenoloxidase
activity was the highest in 3–6 h post injection.
In another work, for the first time Darsouei et al. (2018) reported Beauveria
varroae (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) isolated from S. exigua through an extensive
sampling during 2014–2015 in the Mashhad region, Khorasan Razavi province
(Fig. 11.4). More research is needed to exploit fungi against this pest in future.
11.5.4 Cotton Pests
Cotton bollworm, H. armigera, is the most destructive pest on economically important plants such as cotton, tomato and chickpea in Iran and throughout the world.
Applying insecticides with different mode of action and from different classes causes
resistance in cotton bollworm and leads to reduction in the efficacy of some
conventional insecticide groups such as pyrethroids, organophosphates and carbamates. Using different management tools such as microbial control is necessary for
solving this resistance problem (Naseri et al. 2011; Bagheri et al. 2019).
The first such study, Javar and Kharazi-Pakdel (2004) assessed the pathogenicity
of some native isolates of B. bassiana, including IRAN 440C, IRAN403C, IRAN
441C and KCF105, against third instar H. armigera. Because the mortality rate of
IRAN 441C isolate was significantly higher in both tests and had high spore
production, it was identified as the most effective one among those tested.
Because of the importance of sublethal effects caused by EPFs on pest population
dynamics, Kalvandi et al. (2018) evaluated sublethal impact of B. bassiana DC7
isolate on cotton bollworm. Life table analysis indicated that B. bassiana had a
negative effect on total developmental time by elongation of larval development
period and reducing reproduction and egg laying duration in females. Also, this
fungus has a great potential to reduce the fitness of H. armigera populations, thus it
could be considered as a good candidate for biological control program of
H. armigera.
11.5.5 Subterranean Termites
Subterranean termites are one of the most important pests of buildings, historic
monuments and agricultural crops in some parts of Iran. These termites are cryptic
insects and reside underground, inside trees and remain hidden which make their
control very difficult. In agriculture, termites’ attacks occur at different development
stages of crops, particularly at seedling and maturity stages. In general, damage is
458
H. Askary et al.
particles to form phagocytosis and nodule. Phagocytosis occurred within less than
1 h after injection, but nodulation happened in 3–6 h post injection. There was a
correlation between phenoloxidase activity and total hemocyte count. Phenoloxidase
activity was the highest in 3–6 h post injection.
In another work, for the first time Darsouei et al. (2018) reported Beauveria
varroae (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) isolated from S. exigua through an extensive
sampling during 2014–2015 in the Mashhad region, Khorasan Razavi province
(Fig. 11.4). More research is needed to exploit fungi against this pest in future.
11.5.4 Cotton Pests
Cotton bollworm, H. armigera, is the most destructive pest on economically important plants such as cotton, tomato and chickpea in Iran and throughout the world.
Applying insecticides with different mode of action and from different classes causes
resistance in cotton bollworm and leads to reduction in the efficacy of some
conventional insecticide groups such as pyrethroids, organophosphates and carbamates. Using different management tools such as microbial control is necessary for
solving this resistance problem (Naseri et al. 2011; Bagheri et al. 2019).
The first such study, Javar and Kharazi-Pakdel (2004) assessed the pathogenicity
of some native isolates of B. bassiana, including IRAN 440C, IRAN403C, IRAN
441C and KCF105, against third instar H. armigera. Because the mortality rate of
IRAN 441C isolate was significantly higher in both tests and had high spore
production, it was identified as the most effective one among those tested.
Because of the importance of sublethal effects caused by EPFs on pest population
dynamics, Kalvandi et al. (2018) evaluated sublethal impact of B. bassiana DC7
isolate on cotton bollworm. Life table analysis indicated that B. bassiana had a
negative effect on total developmental time by elongation of larval development
period and reducing reproduction and egg laying duration in females. Also, this
fungus has a great potential to reduce the fitness of H. armigera populations, thus it
could be considered as a good candidate for biological control program of
H. armigera.
11.5.5 Subterranean Termites
Subterranean termites are one of the most important pests of buildings, historic
monuments and agricultural crops in some parts of Iran. These termites are cryptic
insects and reside underground, inside trees and remain hidden which make their
control very difficult. In agriculture, termites’ attacks occur at different development
stages of crops, particularly at seedling and maturity stages. In general, damage is
458
H. Askary et al.