There is a good example of local adaptation for the generalist parasitoid,
Ephedrus persicae Froggatt in Sistan plain with extreme temperature in mid spring.
The most common cereal aphid in this area is Schizaphis graminum, which never
find opportunity to escape from the highly efficient parasitoid. No live aphids were
found in field observations during 10 years at the time of ripening, while high
population of the emerged parasitoids swarming around the fields. It is widely
distributed in the Palaearctic region and other parts of the world and has a wide
range of the host aphids (Žikić et al. 2009). Diuraphis noxia is one of the most
important aphid pest of cereals in many parts of the world, but no serious damage
was recorded in Iran, as the native area for this aphid (Liu et al. 2010). The
occasional outbreak of the other aphids is most probably because of the chemical
treatments done especially against sun pest, Eurygaster integiceps Puton, that
disrupt the efficiency of aphid parasitoids. Excluding the occasional, but important
member of cereal aphid parasitoids in Iran, Aphidius platensis Brethes and Aphidius
matricariae Haliday, other Aphidius species (Aphidius rhopalosiphi De StefaniPerez and Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki) seem having a permanent occurrence
in the cereal fields throughout the country (Rakhshani et al. 2012b; Nazari et al.
2012; Alikhani et al. 2013; Barahoei et al. 2013). Praon gallicum Starý and Praon
necans Mackauer have also recently been recorded as members of cereal aphid
parasitoid guilds in western part of Iran (Bagheri-Matin et al. 2010; Nazari et al.
2012). In total, existence of a complete assemblage of the efficient parasitoids in
cereal fields of Iran never allowed the dangerous pest aphids outbreaks. All of these
parasitoids lose their habitat by the time of harvesting and have to migrate to the
surrounding weeds. Therefore, a simple conservation program including the avoidance of the complete harvesting of the plant material, irrigation after harvesting,
ignoring the unimportant graminaceous weeds around the fields and most importantly avoiding the chemical treatments, as much as possible can greatly help
protection of the aphid parasitoids.
The aphid parasitoid complex in alfalfa fields of Iran has been very well studied
throughout several years (Van den Bosch 1957; Monajemi and Esmaili 1981;
Rakhshani et al. 2006a, b, 2009, 2010). The associated aphids are discussed in
other sections. Similar to cereals, there is no problem of aphid population in alfalfa
fields of Iran, because of the efficient native aphid parasitoids. The large populations
of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) in humid regions was observed after unnecessary
treatments for control of the alfalfa weevil. A rich complex of parasitoids including
Aphidius ervi Haliday, Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao, Aphidius eadyi Starý,
Gonzales & Hall, Praon barbatum Mackauer and Praon volucre Haliday are strictly
associated with this aphid in alfalfa fields across the various regions of Iran
(Rakhshani et al. 2006a). Additional species, Aphidius urticae Haliday was also
recorded from this aphid, which comprises a complex species including Aphidius
banksae Kittel, that occurred in Turkey, but its existence has not been confirmed in
Iran, yet. Majority of these species, excluding Praon volucre are specific and
permanent members of alfalfa fields and related legume crops. Aphidius ervi is
considered as one of the most generalist species in this group, but it showed the
highest rate of parasitism of Acyrthosiphon aphids (Rakhshani et al. 2010; Alikhani
354
E. Rakhshani and P. Starý
Ephedrus persicae Froggatt in Sistan plain with extreme temperature in mid spring.
The most common cereal aphid in this area is Schizaphis graminum, which never
find opportunity to escape from the highly efficient parasitoid. No live aphids were
found in field observations during 10 years at the time of ripening, while high
population of the emerged parasitoids swarming around the fields. It is widely
distributed in the Palaearctic region and other parts of the world and has a wide
range of the host aphids (Žikić et al. 2009). Diuraphis noxia is one of the most
important aphid pest of cereals in many parts of the world, but no serious damage
was recorded in Iran, as the native area for this aphid (Liu et al. 2010). The
occasional outbreak of the other aphids is most probably because of the chemical
treatments done especially against sun pest, Eurygaster integiceps Puton, that
disrupt the efficiency of aphid parasitoids. Excluding the occasional, but important
member of cereal aphid parasitoids in Iran, Aphidius platensis Brethes and Aphidius
matricariae Haliday, other Aphidius species (Aphidius rhopalosiphi De StefaniPerez and Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki) seem having a permanent occurrence
in the cereal fields throughout the country (Rakhshani et al. 2012b; Nazari et al.
2012; Alikhani et al. 2013; Barahoei et al. 2013). Praon gallicum Starý and Praon
necans Mackauer have also recently been recorded as members of cereal aphid
parasitoid guilds in western part of Iran (Bagheri-Matin et al. 2010; Nazari et al.
2012). In total, existence of a complete assemblage of the efficient parasitoids in
cereal fields of Iran never allowed the dangerous pest aphids outbreaks. All of these
parasitoids lose their habitat by the time of harvesting and have to migrate to the
surrounding weeds. Therefore, a simple conservation program including the avoidance of the complete harvesting of the plant material, irrigation after harvesting,
ignoring the unimportant graminaceous weeds around the fields and most importantly avoiding the chemical treatments, as much as possible can greatly help
protection of the aphid parasitoids.
The aphid parasitoid complex in alfalfa fields of Iran has been very well studied
throughout several years (Van den Bosch 1957; Monajemi and Esmaili 1981;
Rakhshani et al. 2006a, b, 2009, 2010). The associated aphids are discussed in
other sections. Similar to cereals, there is no problem of aphid population in alfalfa
fields of Iran, because of the efficient native aphid parasitoids. The large populations
of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) in humid regions was observed after unnecessary
treatments for control of the alfalfa weevil. A rich complex of parasitoids including
Aphidius ervi Haliday, Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao, Aphidius eadyi Starý,
Gonzales & Hall, Praon barbatum Mackauer and Praon volucre Haliday are strictly
associated with this aphid in alfalfa fields across the various regions of Iran
(Rakhshani et al. 2006a). Additional species, Aphidius urticae Haliday was also
recorded from this aphid, which comprises a complex species including Aphidius
banksae Kittel, that occurred in Turkey, but its existence has not been confirmed in
Iran, yet. Majority of these species, excluding Praon volucre are specific and
permanent members of alfalfa fields and related legume crops. Aphidius ervi is
considered as one of the most generalist species in this group, but it showed the
highest rate of parasitism of Acyrthosiphon aphids (Rakhshani et al. 2010; Alikhani
354
E. Rakhshani and P. Starý