Phytoseius plumifer (Canestrini and Fanzago) The mites of the genus Phytoseius
are classified as type III predators. Phytoseius plumifer is an important generalist
indigenous predator of tetranychid mites and is widely found on various crops in Iran
(Kamali et al. 2001; Hajizadeh et al. 2002). Generalists in the Phytoseiinae have a
lower mean reproductive potential than in the Amblyseiinae and are very small. Issa
et al. (1974) studied on the successive release of this predator for controlling spider
mites on the fig seedlings. Rasmy and El-Banhawy (1974) studied some diets
including Aceria ficus Cotte (Acari: Eriophyidae), Tetranychus arabicus Attiah
and the pollen grains of Caster-oil (Ricinus communis L.) on the development and
reproduction of P. plumifer. Prey consumption of P. plumifer on Rhyncaphytoptus
ficifoliae at six constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 37
C) was investigated
and the highest and lowest values of prey consumption by adult female were
observed at 25 and 37
C, respectively (Louni et al. 2014a).
Amblyseius herbicolus Chant Species of the genus of Amblyseius are considered
as type III predators (McMurtry et al. 2013). A. herbicolus is a native species to Iran
with high abundance in Guilan province (Northern Iran) which feeds on spider
mites, eriophyoids, teniupalpids and thrips (Argov et al. 2002). In a survey, Notghi
Moghadam et al. (2010) studied the influence of three diets on development and
oviposition of A. herbicolus under laboratory conditions and concluded that date
palm pollen can be an alternative food in absence of main prey. In another study,
Notghi Moghadam et al. (2014) studied biology and prey preference of this predatory mite on T. urticae and showed that developmental time of egg, larva,
protonymph and deutonymph were 1.73 Æ 0.11, 1.4 Æ 0.12, 1 and
1.13 Æ 0.09 days per female, respectively. Mean generation time (egg to egg) was
6.86 Æ 0.16 days and mean adult female longevity was 30.46 days. During oviposition period (20.33 days), the average of fecundity was calculated 1.8 eggs per day
per female. In the prey stage preference experiment, predatory mites preferred
immature stages of two spotted spider mite.
3.2.1.4.3 Behavioural Aspects
Functional Response and Mutual Interference
Before starting a biological control program, the study of behavioural aspects of
natural enemies is essential. The performance of a predator depends on several
specification, two of them are functional response and mutual interference
(Fathipour et al. 2006). The functional response illustrates the relationship between
an individual’s consumption rate and prey density (Solomon 1949) and has been
classified into three types by Holling (1959). In terms of biological control, predators
which show the type III functional response are usually regarded as efficient
biological control agents (Fernandez-Arhex and Corely 2003; Pervez and Omkar
2006; Xiao and Fadamiro 2010). However, there are some examples of natural
enemies with the type II functional response which has been successfully released
94
H. Hajiqanbar and A. Farazmand
are classified as type III predators. Phytoseius plumifer is an important generalist
indigenous predator of tetranychid mites and is widely found on various crops in Iran
(Kamali et al. 2001; Hajizadeh et al. 2002). Generalists in the Phytoseiinae have a
lower mean reproductive potential than in the Amblyseiinae and are very small. Issa
et al. (1974) studied on the successive release of this predator for controlling spider
mites on the fig seedlings. Rasmy and El-Banhawy (1974) studied some diets
including Aceria ficus Cotte (Acari: Eriophyidae), Tetranychus arabicus Attiah
and the pollen grains of Caster-oil (Ricinus communis L.) on the development and
reproduction of P. plumifer. Prey consumption of P. plumifer on Rhyncaphytoptus
ficifoliae at six constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 37
C) was investigated
and the highest and lowest values of prey consumption by adult female were
observed at 25 and 37
C, respectively (Louni et al. 2014a).
Amblyseius herbicolus Chant Species of the genus of Amblyseius are considered
as type III predators (McMurtry et al. 2013). A. herbicolus is a native species to Iran
with high abundance in Guilan province (Northern Iran) which feeds on spider
mites, eriophyoids, teniupalpids and thrips (Argov et al. 2002). In a survey, Notghi
Moghadam et al. (2010) studied the influence of three diets on development and
oviposition of A. herbicolus under laboratory conditions and concluded that date
palm pollen can be an alternative food in absence of main prey. In another study,
Notghi Moghadam et al. (2014) studied biology and prey preference of this predatory mite on T. urticae and showed that developmental time of egg, larva,
protonymph and deutonymph were 1.73 Æ 0.11, 1.4 Æ 0.12, 1 and
1.13 Æ 0.09 days per female, respectively. Mean generation time (egg to egg) was
6.86 Æ 0.16 days and mean adult female longevity was 30.46 days. During oviposition period (20.33 days), the average of fecundity was calculated 1.8 eggs per day
per female. In the prey stage preference experiment, predatory mites preferred
immature stages of two spotted spider mite.
3.2.1.4.3 Behavioural Aspects
Functional Response and Mutual Interference
Before starting a biological control program, the study of behavioural aspects of
natural enemies is essential. The performance of a predator depends on several
specification, two of them are functional response and mutual interference
(Fathipour et al. 2006). The functional response illustrates the relationship between
an individual’s consumption rate and prey density (Solomon 1949) and has been
classified into three types by Holling (1959). In terms of biological control, predators
which show the type III functional response are usually regarded as efficient
biological control agents (Fernandez-Arhex and Corely 2003; Pervez and Omkar
2006; Xiao and Fadamiro 2010). However, there are some examples of natural
enemies with the type II functional response which has been successfully released
94
H. Hajiqanbar and A. Farazmand