210
AFB1 revealed that it is quite stable during heat processing operations leading to
its presence in peanut products as peanut butter that is traditionally made by grinding or crushing dried and roasted groundnuts. In fact, many recent reports have
revealed a co-occurrence of AFB1 in peanut products. This co-occurrence may
result in some cases in synergistic action in humans and animals based on toxicological effects of AFB1 (Abel Boli et al. 2017).
Contamination by aflatoxins can take place at any point along the food chain
from the field, harvest, handling, shipment, and storage. Aflatoxins have been found
to contaminate a wide variety of important agricultural products worldwide, e.g.,
corn, wheat, rice, spices, dried fruits, and nuts. They have been clearly identified as
highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic compounds and have been
implicated as causative agents in human hepatic and extrahepatic carcinogenesis.
These compounds can enter the food chain mainly by ingestion through the dietary
channel of humans and animals. Different countries have imposed different legal
limits on various food items and animal feeds. The level in feeds is generally higher
than for human consumption (e.g., the Korean maximum legal limits for aflatoxins
B1 are 10 and 50 ng g
−1
in food and feed, respectively) (Khayoon et al. 2010).
The order of toxicity, AFB1 > AFB2 > AFG1 > AFG2, indicates that the terminal
furan moiety of AFB1 is the critical point for determining the degree of biological
activity of this group of mycotoxins. Aflatoxins are found generally in feed and
foodstuff, such as cereal for human consumption and all products derived from
cereals, including processed cereal products. It can be assumed that about 20% of
food products, mainly from vegetables (e.g., cereals), are substantially contaminated. For this reason and for their toxicity, the European Union in the Commission
Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 has established the maximum residue limits
(MRLs) of aflatoxins in cereals and their derivatives: 2 g kg
−1
for AFB1, 4 g kg
−1
for
the sum of the four aflatoxins, and 0.1 g kg
−1
for AFB1 in processed cereal-based
foods and baby foods for infants and young children (Quinto et al. 2009).
Among the four major AFs − B1, B2, G1, and G2 − aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the
most toxic and carcinogenic. The manifestation of chronic or acute toxicosis as well
as carcinogenicity depends on the dose, duration of exposure, and rate of metabolism to less toxic metabolites. Aflatoxin B1 was classified as a group 1 carcinogen
(carcinogenic to humans) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The
toxicity of AFB1 in birds has been widely investigated, being the liver the target
organ for the toxin. Biochemical, hematological, immunological, and pathological
effects of AFB1 have also been well-described. The liver is also the main organ
where AFB1 is stored, metabolized, and/or conjugated to nucleic acids and proteins.
Aflatoxin B1 is activated by cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP), including CYP1A2,
CYP3A4, and CYP2A6, and converted to epoxides (AFB1-8,(Ayalew 2010) exoepoxide, and AFB18 (Ayalew 2010) endo-epoxide), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), aflatoxin P1 (AFP1), aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1), or its reduced form aflatoxicol (AFL)
(Magnoli et al. 2018).
N. M. Abdelmotilib et al.
AFB1 revealed that it is quite stable during heat processing operations leading to
its presence in peanut products as peanut butter that is traditionally made by grinding or crushing dried and roasted groundnuts. In fact, many recent reports have
revealed a co-occurrence of AFB1 in peanut products. This co-occurrence may
result in some cases in synergistic action in humans and animals based on toxicological effects of AFB1 (Abel Boli et al. 2017).
Contamination by aflatoxins can take place at any point along the food chain
from the field, harvest, handling, shipment, and storage. Aflatoxins have been found
to contaminate a wide variety of important agricultural products worldwide, e.g.,
corn, wheat, rice, spices, dried fruits, and nuts. They have been clearly identified as
highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic compounds and have been
implicated as causative agents in human hepatic and extrahepatic carcinogenesis.
These compounds can enter the food chain mainly by ingestion through the dietary
channel of humans and animals. Different countries have imposed different legal
limits on various food items and animal feeds. The level in feeds is generally higher
than for human consumption (e.g., the Korean maximum legal limits for aflatoxins
B1 are 10 and 50 ng g
−1
in food and feed, respectively) (Khayoon et al. 2010).
The order of toxicity, AFB1 > AFB2 > AFG1 > AFG2, indicates that the terminal
furan moiety of AFB1 is the critical point for determining the degree of biological
activity of this group of mycotoxins. Aflatoxins are found generally in feed and
foodstuff, such as cereal for human consumption and all products derived from
cereals, including processed cereal products. It can be assumed that about 20% of
food products, mainly from vegetables (e.g., cereals), are substantially contaminated. For this reason and for their toxicity, the European Union in the Commission
Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 has established the maximum residue limits
(MRLs) of aflatoxins in cereals and their derivatives: 2 g kg
−1
for AFB1, 4 g kg
−1
for
the sum of the four aflatoxins, and 0.1 g kg
−1
for AFB1 in processed cereal-based
foods and baby foods for infants and young children (Quinto et al. 2009).
Among the four major AFs − B1, B2, G1, and G2 − aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the
most toxic and carcinogenic. The manifestation of chronic or acute toxicosis as well
as carcinogenicity depends on the dose, duration of exposure, and rate of metabolism to less toxic metabolites. Aflatoxin B1 was classified as a group 1 carcinogen
(carcinogenic to humans) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The
toxicity of AFB1 in birds has been widely investigated, being the liver the target
organ for the toxin. Biochemical, hematological, immunological, and pathological
effects of AFB1 have also been well-described. The liver is also the main organ
where AFB1 is stored, metabolized, and/or conjugated to nucleic acids and proteins.
Aflatoxin B1 is activated by cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP), including CYP1A2,
CYP3A4, and CYP2A6, and converted to epoxides (AFB1-8,(Ayalew 2010) exoepoxide, and AFB18 (Ayalew 2010) endo-epoxide), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), aflatoxin P1 (AFP1), aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1), or its reduced form aflatoxicol (AFL)
(Magnoli et al. 2018).
N. M. Abdelmotilib et al.