18
culminate in the environment. This is especially because there are not set guidelines
and systems in place to collect expired antibiotics and most of the workers handling
antibiotics in agriculture are not properly trained and are unaware of the issue.
Being highly water soluble, these antibiotics can spread quickly in the environment,
to surface and ground water and the soil (Du and Liu 2012).
The antibiotics in the environment have different fates depending upon their
chemical nature and degradability. They undergo sorption, biodegradation, photodegradation and oxidation processes during their elimination from the environment
(Li et al. 2014). Some artificial methods such as sedimentation, adsorption, coagulation, filtration, and advanced oxidation processes can also be applied to accelerate
degradation of antibiotics, but are not so frequently used (Homem and Santos 2011).
Depending on their type, different antibiotics respond variably to degradation by
aerobic/anaerobic digestion and composting methods in wastewater, spent sludge
and manure. Of course, these processes are highly dependent upon the temperature,
moisture and composting conditions and the source animal (Bao et al. 2009).
Regardless of their source or final fate, their presence in the environment is frequently associated with high number of antibiotic resistant bacteria in that niche.
About 33% of total Gram negative bacterial isolates were found to be resistant to
commonly used antibiotics such as tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ampicillin, nalidixic acid and sulphamethoxazole from cattle farms in Spain (Carballo et al. 2013).
There is limited data available on the use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the agricultural systems. This is largely because no such system has been in
place and given its connection with animals, the logging of data and following of
strict regulations, are largely ignored. Further, there is no monitoring of antimicrobial resistance and its spread from manure, sewage and waste water treatment plants,
all of which are known as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance (Michael et al. 2013).
1.3 Prevention and Regulation of Antimicrobial Resistance
The menace of antimicrobial resistance is worldwide and need multi-thronged
approach to achieve control and regulation over antimicrobial resistance. This
includes improving awareness and understanding about antimicrobial resistance,
optimize the usage of antimicrobials, effective surveillance and research, prevention
of infection and more focus towards generation of novel drugs (Berendonk et al.
2015). Awareness about antimicrobial resistance is being increased through various
outreach programmes (radio, TV, local engagement) by the governments worldwide, in collaboration with many non-governmental and professional organizations.
Another important part is training of the health professionals (including pharmacists) to prescribe responsibly, maintain register for advanced class of antibiotics
and curb the sale of over-the-counter drugs without prescription. Community level
measures start with maintenance of good hygienic practices, immunization of maximum population and creating awareness about rational use of antibiotics. Healthcare
systems such as hospitals and clinics need to practice good hand hygiene practices,
K. S. Singh et al.
culminate in the environment. This is especially because there are not set guidelines
and systems in place to collect expired antibiotics and most of the workers handling
antibiotics in agriculture are not properly trained and are unaware of the issue.
Being highly water soluble, these antibiotics can spread quickly in the environment,
to surface and ground water and the soil (Du and Liu 2012).
The antibiotics in the environment have different fates depending upon their
chemical nature and degradability. They undergo sorption, biodegradation, photodegradation and oxidation processes during their elimination from the environment
(Li et al. 2014). Some artificial methods such as sedimentation, adsorption, coagulation, filtration, and advanced oxidation processes can also be applied to accelerate
degradation of antibiotics, but are not so frequently used (Homem and Santos 2011).
Depending on their type, different antibiotics respond variably to degradation by
aerobic/anaerobic digestion and composting methods in wastewater, spent sludge
and manure. Of course, these processes are highly dependent upon the temperature,
moisture and composting conditions and the source animal (Bao et al. 2009).
Regardless of their source or final fate, their presence in the environment is frequently associated with high number of antibiotic resistant bacteria in that niche.
About 33% of total Gram negative bacterial isolates were found to be resistant to
commonly used antibiotics such as tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ampicillin, nalidixic acid and sulphamethoxazole from cattle farms in Spain (Carballo et al. 2013).
There is limited data available on the use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the agricultural systems. This is largely because no such system has been in
place and given its connection with animals, the logging of data and following of
strict regulations, are largely ignored. Further, there is no monitoring of antimicrobial resistance and its spread from manure, sewage and waste water treatment plants,
all of which are known as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance (Michael et al. 2013).
1.3 Prevention and Regulation of Antimicrobial Resistance
The menace of antimicrobial resistance is worldwide and need multi-thronged
approach to achieve control and regulation over antimicrobial resistance. This
includes improving awareness and understanding about antimicrobial resistance,
optimize the usage of antimicrobials, effective surveillance and research, prevention
of infection and more focus towards generation of novel drugs (Berendonk et al.
2015). Awareness about antimicrobial resistance is being increased through various
outreach programmes (radio, TV, local engagement) by the governments worldwide, in collaboration with many non-governmental and professional organizations.
Another important part is training of the health professionals (including pharmacists) to prescribe responsibly, maintain register for advanced class of antibiotics
and curb the sale of over-the-counter drugs without prescription. Community level
measures start with maintenance of good hygienic practices, immunization of maximum population and creating awareness about rational use of antibiotics. Healthcare
systems such as hospitals and clinics need to practice good hand hygiene practices,
K. S. Singh et al.