209
considering the possibility of resistance development. The presence of many generic
competitors in the antibiotics market along with the rapid development of antimicrobial resistance further contributes to the decrease of the interest of pharmaceutical companies in the investment for antibiotic development. The demanding
approval requirement during clinical trials is another problem that should not be
neglected (Stein and Castanotto 2017). The pharmaceutical companies face a great
paradox. Some federal agencies call them to promote the development and research
of antibiotics while at the same time others enact policies to deter that very development. All these make the investment in research and development of novel antibacterial drugs risky and costly. Especially, for the large pharmaceutical companies,
this means fewer possibilities for a satisfactory reward. Therefore, all these facts
mentioned above play a leading role in the decreased interest of the pharmaceutical
industry to develop new antibiotics (Fair and Tor 2014).
9.3 Ways of Spreading of Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance can spread in multiple ways. One of the most common is
through the food chain. Antibiotics were used massively as prophylaxis and control
of diseases in domestic animals, which led to the development of drug resistant
bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. The resistant bacteria end up in
crops either through animal defecation infected with bacteria or watering of crops
with contaminated water. Thus, resistant bacteria get through the human’s gastrointestinal tract through the consumption of contaminated food (Verraes et al. 2013).
Apart from that, the healthcare units are among the most favorable environments
for the spread of bacterial infections. Especially, it seems that factors like inadequate infection control, lack of proper education and the absence of surveillance
programs contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance. The ways by
which infections can spread are either direct from human to human or through contaminated surfaces (Penchovsky and Traykovska 2015). All these indicate that there
is a great need for strategies for the prevention and containment of antimicrobial
resistance globally and their absence is considered to play an important role in the
emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (Levy and Marshall 2004).
There is a variety of mechanisms, through which antimicrobial resistance
emerges in bacteria. Multiple biochemical routes are used for the classification of
the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance development. It is necessary to understand the genetic basis of antimicrobial resistance development to make new methods and drugs to tackle it. Antimicrobial resistance can be either intrinsic in which
a specific antimicrobial resistance is inherited, or acquired in cases where a previously sensitive bacteria became resistant (Munita and Arias 2016; Tenover 2006;
Blair et al. 2015). During the past decades, the understanding of the mechanisms of
antimicrobial resistance development was a central issue because of the health and
economic losses worldwide (Hayes and Wolf 1990). The treatment of infections for
which antimicrobial resistant bacteria are blamed is becoming more difficult. The
9 Drug Discovery for Targeting Drug Resistant Bacteria
considering the possibility of resistance development. The presence of many generic
competitors in the antibiotics market along with the rapid development of antimicrobial resistance further contributes to the decrease of the interest of pharmaceutical companies in the investment for antibiotic development. The demanding
approval requirement during clinical trials is another problem that should not be
neglected (Stein and Castanotto 2017). The pharmaceutical companies face a great
paradox. Some federal agencies call them to promote the development and research
of antibiotics while at the same time others enact policies to deter that very development. All these make the investment in research and development of novel antibacterial drugs risky and costly. Especially, for the large pharmaceutical companies,
this means fewer possibilities for a satisfactory reward. Therefore, all these facts
mentioned above play a leading role in the decreased interest of the pharmaceutical
industry to develop new antibiotics (Fair and Tor 2014).
9.3 Ways of Spreading of Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance can spread in multiple ways. One of the most common is
through the food chain. Antibiotics were used massively as prophylaxis and control
of diseases in domestic animals, which led to the development of drug resistant
bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. The resistant bacteria end up in
crops either through animal defecation infected with bacteria or watering of crops
with contaminated water. Thus, resistant bacteria get through the human’s gastrointestinal tract through the consumption of contaminated food (Verraes et al. 2013).
Apart from that, the healthcare units are among the most favorable environments
for the spread of bacterial infections. Especially, it seems that factors like inadequate infection control, lack of proper education and the absence of surveillance
programs contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance. The ways by
which infections can spread are either direct from human to human or through contaminated surfaces (Penchovsky and Traykovska 2015). All these indicate that there
is a great need for strategies for the prevention and containment of antimicrobial
resistance globally and their absence is considered to play an important role in the
emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (Levy and Marshall 2004).
There is a variety of mechanisms, through which antimicrobial resistance
emerges in bacteria. Multiple biochemical routes are used for the classification of
the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance development. It is necessary to understand the genetic basis of antimicrobial resistance development to make new methods and drugs to tackle it. Antimicrobial resistance can be either intrinsic in which
a specific antimicrobial resistance is inherited, or acquired in cases where a previously sensitive bacteria became resistant (Munita and Arias 2016; Tenover 2006;
Blair et al. 2015). During the past decades, the understanding of the mechanisms of
antimicrobial resistance development was a central issue because of the health and
economic losses worldwide (Hayes and Wolf 1990). The treatment of infections for
which antimicrobial resistant bacteria are blamed is becoming more difficult. The
9 Drug Discovery for Targeting Drug Resistant Bacteria