technology are done at the expense of human values
and without consideration of the entire spectrum of
social dimensions and inclusivity. As such the rights
of the individuals, essence of justice, and environmental concerns should always be part and parcel of every
stage in research.
Research ethics alludes to morals and professional
codes applied by researchers as they conduct their
research. It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare
of research participants. All research involving human
beings should be reviewed by an ethics committee
to ensure that the appropriate ethical standards are
being upheld (CIOMS 2016; WHO 2020). These
standards should be applied in all global contexts,
whether carried out in low income countries (LICs)
or high-income countries (HICs). It is in this spirit
that the UNESCO Commission for Ethics of Science and Technology recommends that science can be
sustained when the actors involved in research consider this noble task as a responsibility (COMEST
2015).
Scientific and technological advancement make
positive contribution to humanity when they resonate with national and international agenda, promote
enhancement of society, and give provisions for environmental consideration. In this respect scientific
research should be conducted in a humane, and responsible manner scientifically, socially and ecologically.
In recommending civic and ethical aspects of scientific research, UNESCO advocates for researchers
take responsibility for themselves, their institutions,
their nation, and global community at large (COMEST
2015). Building on Rawls’ principle of difference, as
we distribute any resources associated with innovative
research endeavors, we need to pay special attention to vulnerable communities and individuals who
have experienced injustice and historical disadvantages over the years – and actually support those who
need help the most. This would be justice in action and
it would embody the principle of subsidiarity, whereby,
resources are consciously distributed to those in great
need (Rawls 2001).
Science and technology are currently characterised
by a process of rapid change. It is notable that cuttingedge converging technologies may escape existing normative frameworks or regulations (UNESCO 2018).
A good case in mind is the contemporary big data
discussion. With increasing advancement in information and communication technology, data acquisition,
storage - including aspects of personal privacy –
can easily be compromised by this transformation.
Beyond research and innovation, such big data collection arises from how people consume products
from industry (Strand & Kaiser 2015). A second
example is biobanking and associated innovations.
Studies involving the use of biological materials are
on the rise in Africa and there is need to conduct
research activities following strict ethics. Biobanks
are organized collections of human biological materials and associated information stored for research
purposes (Zatloukal 2018). Heated debates concerning exportation of biological samples, exploitation of
participants, benefit-sharing, secondary use of samples and data over time, and return of results, among
others in relation to LICs have been documented
(Tindana, Molyneux, Bull, & Parker 2014; Wonkam,
Kenfack, Muna, & Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer 2011).
Where research engages sample donors and utilizes the
samples in numerous future analyses, there is a need
to give the sample donors and their local communities’ feedback on findings and any resultant products
(CIOMS 2016).
4 ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO
INNOVATIONS
In this paper we focus on research and development
stages of innovation. One of the common ethical issue
at the onset is the source of ideas. Innovations often
require teamwork inputs, but they can also be enabled
by outstanding innovators (Stückelberger & de Waal
2014). Innovative ideas may be derived from diverse
sources including indigenous informal, and formal
sectors. Once the idea gains momentum for research,
ethical test sets in. Sometimes the source of knowledge is not appropriately credited, acknowledged, and
compensated. Moreover, the mechanisms to ensure
the resulting innovations is transferred back to the
source are not well established (UNESCO 2018). This
presents a potential ethical lacuna.
Like scientific and technological advancement, the
societal benefits of innovation should be placed in an
ethical scale both in the short term and long-term.
This is because innovations bring numerous benefits but also present some potential risks. The main
areas that require attention are the potential negative effects of innovations even with improvements
and uncertainties. For example, the development of
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was initially
considered as breakthrough chemistry innovation but
later negative effects on bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain causing harm in
birds and other species. Similarly, the development
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants
and propellants, was for a long time proved to be a
great success until the negative effects on the ozone
layer were discovered (Stückelberger & de Waal 2014).
Lessons from past innovations call for due diligence, in
this case on ethical concerns. It is incumbent upon the
scientific community to therefore view all new inventions through an ethical lens so as to avoid “innovation
ethical blindness”. This calls for a balanced approach
in the innovation value chain so that both risks and
potential benefits can be critically reviewed. It is also
important to bear in mind that along the innovation
value chain, ethical concerns at consumption level
may arise for instance on how available, accessible,
affordable and acceptable the perceived benefits are at
commercial level (Bastos de Morais & Stückelberger
2014).
13
and without consideration of the entire spectrum of
social dimensions and inclusivity. As such the rights
of the individuals, essence of justice, and environmental concerns should always be part and parcel of every
stage in research.
Research ethics alludes to morals and professional
codes applied by researchers as they conduct their
research. It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare
of research participants. All research involving human
beings should be reviewed by an ethics committee
to ensure that the appropriate ethical standards are
being upheld (CIOMS 2016; WHO 2020). These
standards should be applied in all global contexts,
whether carried out in low income countries (LICs)
or high-income countries (HICs). It is in this spirit
that the UNESCO Commission for Ethics of Science and Technology recommends that science can be
sustained when the actors involved in research consider this noble task as a responsibility (COMEST
2015).
Scientific and technological advancement make
positive contribution to humanity when they resonate with national and international agenda, promote
enhancement of society, and give provisions for environmental consideration. In this respect scientific
research should be conducted in a humane, and responsible manner scientifically, socially and ecologically.
In recommending civic and ethical aspects of scientific research, UNESCO advocates for researchers
take responsibility for themselves, their institutions,
their nation, and global community at large (COMEST
2015). Building on Rawls’ principle of difference, as
we distribute any resources associated with innovative
research endeavors, we need to pay special attention to vulnerable communities and individuals who
have experienced injustice and historical disadvantages over the years – and actually support those who
need help the most. This would be justice in action and
it would embody the principle of subsidiarity, whereby,
resources are consciously distributed to those in great
need (Rawls 2001).
Science and technology are currently characterised
by a process of rapid change. It is notable that cuttingedge converging technologies may escape existing normative frameworks or regulations (UNESCO 2018).
A good case in mind is the contemporary big data
discussion. With increasing advancement in information and communication technology, data acquisition,
storage - including aspects of personal privacy –
can easily be compromised by this transformation.
Beyond research and innovation, such big data collection arises from how people consume products
from industry (Strand & Kaiser 2015). A second
example is biobanking and associated innovations.
Studies involving the use of biological materials are
on the rise in Africa and there is need to conduct
research activities following strict ethics. Biobanks
are organized collections of human biological materials and associated information stored for research
purposes (Zatloukal 2018). Heated debates concerning exportation of biological samples, exploitation of
participants, benefit-sharing, secondary use of samples and data over time, and return of results, among
others in relation to LICs have been documented
(Tindana, Molyneux, Bull, & Parker 2014; Wonkam,
Kenfack, Muna, & Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer 2011).
Where research engages sample donors and utilizes the
samples in numerous future analyses, there is a need
to give the sample donors and their local communities’ feedback on findings and any resultant products
(CIOMS 2016).
4 ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO
INNOVATIONS
In this paper we focus on research and development
stages of innovation. One of the common ethical issue
at the onset is the source of ideas. Innovations often
require teamwork inputs, but they can also be enabled
by outstanding innovators (Stückelberger & de Waal
2014). Innovative ideas may be derived from diverse
sources including indigenous informal, and formal
sectors. Once the idea gains momentum for research,
ethical test sets in. Sometimes the source of knowledge is not appropriately credited, acknowledged, and
compensated. Moreover, the mechanisms to ensure
the resulting innovations is transferred back to the
source are not well established (UNESCO 2018). This
presents a potential ethical lacuna.
Like scientific and technological advancement, the
societal benefits of innovation should be placed in an
ethical scale both in the short term and long-term.
This is because innovations bring numerous benefits but also present some potential risks. The main
areas that require attention are the potential negative effects of innovations even with improvements
and uncertainties. For example, the development of
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was initially
considered as breakthrough chemistry innovation but
later negative effects on bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain causing harm in
birds and other species. Similarly, the development
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants
and propellants, was for a long time proved to be a
great success until the negative effects on the ozone
layer were discovered (Stückelberger & de Waal 2014).
Lessons from past innovations call for due diligence, in
this case on ethical concerns. It is incumbent upon the
scientific community to therefore view all new inventions through an ethical lens so as to avoid “innovation
ethical blindness”. This calls for a balanced approach
in the innovation value chain so that both risks and
potential benefits can be critically reviewed. It is also
important to bear in mind that along the innovation
value chain, ethical concerns at consumption level
may arise for instance on how available, accessible,
affordable and acceptable the perceived benefits are at
commercial level (Bastos de Morais & Stückelberger
2014).
13