still a difficult phenomenon to impose onto the rural
populations to allow for modified electricity usage patterns in low generation seasons so as to at least sustain
basic lighting services to the communities at night
(Parhizi et al., 2015). Majorly, access to electricity
services is usually characterized by lifestyle transformation due to improved standards of living. With
increased energy affordability i.e. lower tariffs, the significance of increased customer satisfaction becomes
apparent and comes with a lock-in effect that usually
tends not to accommodate unscheduled power cuts
(Zubi et al., 2016). This has often led to dissatisfaction
and reduced customer confidence.
On the other hand, early involvement of the locals
prior to the implementation of the proposed MG
projects is essential with regards to acquisition of land,
determination of the load profile, economic activities,
past site history and freely sourcing of all the prerequisite data. This ushers good customer management
that aids in future process implementation in regards
to knowing; the level of incorporation of the local
expertise, appropriate modes of payment, and their
employability to mention (Kirubi et al., 2009).
5.4 Technical barriers
Project developers are always confronted with the concern of involvement of the community workmanship
as the local reticulation personnel mainly because they
are predestined to work hand in hand with the technical
development team for technical project sustainability
(Barelli et al., 2019). However, the skill set of the local
workmanship has been lacking leading to installations
that are well below standard (Mugagga & Chamdimba,
2019). Project technical sustainability has been partly
hampered by the urge of the newly trained technical
personnel shifting to more highly paying jobs in the
urban dwellings. Also, in the event of major repairs,
the rural MGs are faced with the problem of long
lead times experienced in deliveries alongside the high
repair and maintenance costs (Williams et al., 2015).
These at times necessitate highly experienced technical expertise and consequently, downtimes become
more pronounced which distorts customer confidence
(Weston et al., 2016).
The Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) should
participate in the enforcement of comprehensive technical standards that are paramount in ensuring proper
installations, power and system quality for systematic
MG deployment (Chessin et al., 2017). These standards ensure adequate training of the local personnel
which subsequently contributes to project sustainability. It is imperative to adopt the DC- coupled MG
for purposes of avoiding several power conversion
sequences which in effect lower the system efficiency
yet energy savings of up to 33% with Direct Current
(DC) MG networks can be obtained (Opiyo, 2019).
5.5 Inadequate load estimations
Load forecasts are the domain of data acquisition for
MG planning and operational purposes. Since MGs
provide for higher tiers of energy access, it becomes
problematic to fully anticipate the level of load growth.
The severity of this challenge is more pronounced
in areas where electricity access is an alien concept
i.e. most rural areas and thereby necessitating the use
of software tools such as HOMER to simulate the
load profiles and growth (Mohapatra et al., 2019).
Furthermore, the failure to establish contracts with
the large anchor load customers during the initial
stages of project development exposes developers to
un-bankable load availability (Schnitzer et al., 2014).
Also, with the catalytic nature of electricity, several
startups of PUE tend to overshoot beyond the designed
optimal capacity. This eventually leads to a mismatch
in demand and supply (Bahaj et al., 2019).
The authors (Gambino et al., 2019), developed a
methodology for studying the energy needs assessment for the effective design and deployment of MGs
for rural electrification while mitigating uncertainties in electrical demand with specific concern to the
green field communities. Proper MG sizing can be
achieved by collecting the community and customerbased data through standard questionnaires and results
studied with adequate corrective factors to generate the
load profiles and determine the peak load (SEforALL
BNEF, 2020). The utilization of linear growth profiles
through the interpolation of the existing demand can
somewhat be representative of the population growth,
economic growth and typical consumption patterns.
Forecast demand growth gives a realistic horizon to the
anticipated payback times (Kirubi et al., 2009). Productive use monitoring using timers and relays helps
to limit scrupulous customer connections. This ensures
adequate load control and paves way for thorough load
audits to be performed prior to new customer stepwise
connections.
6 DISCUSSION
Of the fourteen MGs reviewed, those utilizing solar
have gained ground in meeting the increasing energy
demand with regard to DG mainly because of their
plummeting technology costs. Solar MGs tend to have
relatively higher energy costs than hydro i.e. $0.19 –
0.28 /kWh and $0.11 – 0.18/kWh respectively due to
the energy storage and capital costs. However, the daytime power consumption tends to offset these energy
storage costs though battery less systems are generally uncommon in Ugandan MGs. Private investments
have proved to be more financially viable in areas
with established bankable anchor loads which ultimately ensures the optimum and efficient utilization
of generated power thus enabling the actualization of
shorter payback periods. Anchor loads for the Kisiizi
and Kabunyata MGs had a more certain power demand
unlike the Ssekanyonyi MG. Key to note is the advantage of economies of scale played out in the Kalangala
MG whose costs per kWh compete favorably with
those of the hydro MGs. As witnessed in this context
also, the MGs with PUE mainly predominant in the
253
populations to allow for modified electricity usage patterns in low generation seasons so as to at least sustain
basic lighting services to the communities at night
(Parhizi et al., 2015). Majorly, access to electricity
services is usually characterized by lifestyle transformation due to improved standards of living. With
increased energy affordability i.e. lower tariffs, the significance of increased customer satisfaction becomes
apparent and comes with a lock-in effect that usually
tends not to accommodate unscheduled power cuts
(Zubi et al., 2016). This has often led to dissatisfaction
and reduced customer confidence.
On the other hand, early involvement of the locals
prior to the implementation of the proposed MG
projects is essential with regards to acquisition of land,
determination of the load profile, economic activities,
past site history and freely sourcing of all the prerequisite data. This ushers good customer management
that aids in future process implementation in regards
to knowing; the level of incorporation of the local
expertise, appropriate modes of payment, and their
employability to mention (Kirubi et al., 2009).
5.4 Technical barriers
Project developers are always confronted with the concern of involvement of the community workmanship
as the local reticulation personnel mainly because they
are predestined to work hand in hand with the technical
development team for technical project sustainability
(Barelli et al., 2019). However, the skill set of the local
workmanship has been lacking leading to installations
that are well below standard (Mugagga & Chamdimba,
2019). Project technical sustainability has been partly
hampered by the urge of the newly trained technical
personnel shifting to more highly paying jobs in the
urban dwellings. Also, in the event of major repairs,
the rural MGs are faced with the problem of long
lead times experienced in deliveries alongside the high
repair and maintenance costs (Williams et al., 2015).
These at times necessitate highly experienced technical expertise and consequently, downtimes become
more pronounced which distorts customer confidence
(Weston et al., 2016).
The Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) should
participate in the enforcement of comprehensive technical standards that are paramount in ensuring proper
installations, power and system quality for systematic
MG deployment (Chessin et al., 2017). These standards ensure adequate training of the local personnel
which subsequently contributes to project sustainability. It is imperative to adopt the DC- coupled MG
for purposes of avoiding several power conversion
sequences which in effect lower the system efficiency
yet energy savings of up to 33% with Direct Current
(DC) MG networks can be obtained (Opiyo, 2019).
5.5 Inadequate load estimations
Load forecasts are the domain of data acquisition for
MG planning and operational purposes. Since MGs
provide for higher tiers of energy access, it becomes
problematic to fully anticipate the level of load growth.
The severity of this challenge is more pronounced
in areas where electricity access is an alien concept
i.e. most rural areas and thereby necessitating the use
of software tools such as HOMER to simulate the
load profiles and growth (Mohapatra et al., 2019).
Furthermore, the failure to establish contracts with
the large anchor load customers during the initial
stages of project development exposes developers to
un-bankable load availability (Schnitzer et al., 2014).
Also, with the catalytic nature of electricity, several
startups of PUE tend to overshoot beyond the designed
optimal capacity. This eventually leads to a mismatch
in demand and supply (Bahaj et al., 2019).
The authors (Gambino et al., 2019), developed a
methodology for studying the energy needs assessment for the effective design and deployment of MGs
for rural electrification while mitigating uncertainties in electrical demand with specific concern to the
green field communities. Proper MG sizing can be
achieved by collecting the community and customerbased data through standard questionnaires and results
studied with adequate corrective factors to generate the
load profiles and determine the peak load (SEforALL
BNEF, 2020). The utilization of linear growth profiles
through the interpolation of the existing demand can
somewhat be representative of the population growth,
economic growth and typical consumption patterns.
Forecast demand growth gives a realistic horizon to the
anticipated payback times (Kirubi et al., 2009). Productive use monitoring using timers and relays helps
to limit scrupulous customer connections. This ensures
adequate load control and paves way for thorough load
audits to be performed prior to new customer stepwise
connections.
6 DISCUSSION
Of the fourteen MGs reviewed, those utilizing solar
have gained ground in meeting the increasing energy
demand with regard to DG mainly because of their
plummeting technology costs. Solar MGs tend to have
relatively higher energy costs than hydro i.e. $0.19 –
0.28 /kWh and $0.11 – 0.18/kWh respectively due to
the energy storage and capital costs. However, the daytime power consumption tends to offset these energy
storage costs though battery less systems are generally uncommon in Ugandan MGs. Private investments
have proved to be more financially viable in areas
with established bankable anchor loads which ultimately ensures the optimum and efficient utilization
of generated power thus enabling the actualization of
shorter payback periods. Anchor loads for the Kisiizi
and Kabunyata MGs had a more certain power demand
unlike the Ssekanyonyi MG. Key to note is the advantage of economies of scale played out in the Kalangala
MG whose costs per kWh compete favorably with
those of the hydro MGs. As witnessed in this context
also, the MGs with PUE mainly predominant in the
253