quinine, artemisinin (Misra, Mehta, Mehta, & Mehta
2014), and silymarin (Saleh et al. 2015), among others,
have been isolated from plants (Sofowora 2008).
The medicinal value of plants lies in some chemical
substances that produce definite physiological actions
on the human body. The most important of these compounds are alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic
compounds. Biological and pharmacological activities
of phytochemical compounds depend on factors such
as the ecological factors, age of the plant, species,
and method of extraction. Thus, each plant has different chemical composition, toxicity, and bioactivity
(Jeruto, Arama, Anyango, & Maroa 2017). The type
and amount of phytochemical compounds present usually differ from one part of the plant to another. This
explains why in traditional medicine, different parts
of the same plant may be used in treating different
diseases (Ngulde et al. 2013).
Senna didymobotrya belongs to the genus Senna
and family Fabaceae. It is a hairy, aromatic shrub
5–9 m tall. The plant flowers in each inflorescence
are arranged sequentially in raceme of bright yellow
petals. The fruit is a flat brown legume pod. Different ethnic communities in Kenya have various names
for the species didymobotrya, for example, in Meru,
it is called Murao/Kirao (Gakuubi & Wanzala 2012),
Senetwet in Nandi and Kipsigis (Jeruto, Lukhoba,
Ouma, Mutai, & Otieno 2008), Owinu/Obino in Luo,
and Ithaa/Muthaa in Kamba (Wagate et al. 2012). The
plant is used for the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, hypertension, haemorrhoids, sickle
cell anaemia, a range of diseases affecting women
such as inflammation of fallopian tubes, fibroids, and
backache, to stimulate lactation, and to induce uterine
contraction and abortion (Nyamwamu et al. 2015).
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Herbal medicines contain active ingredients that are
present in complex mixtures formulated as crude fractions of plants or combinations of plants. Herbal drugs
are widely accepted as an alternative treatment for
primary health care needs in both developing and
developed populations. However, herbal medicines
have a range of limitations including lack of evidence
of safety, efficacy, standardization, varying production practices and absence of regulatory standards
and implementation protocols (Chawla et al. 2013).
The quality issue of herbal drugs can be ensured by
conducting some important tests such as micro- and
macroscopic investigation, moisture content, exclusion of foreign organic matter, extractive values, ash
value, qualitative and quantitative chemical tests, chromatographic characterization, toxicological test, phytochemical evaluation, and microbial tests (Chawla
et al. 2013; Sahil, Sudeep, & Akanksha 2011; Yadav,
Mahour, & Kumar 2011).
Quality control of the medicinal plants starts right
at the source of the plant material. The phytochemical composition of the plant material and the resulting
quality can vary due to several factors including a
number of environmental factors such as geographical location, soil quality, temperature, and rainfall;
taxonomy, the time of collection, method of collection,
cultivation, harvesting, drying and storage conditions,
preparation and processing methods can also affect
composition. Contamination by microbes, chemical
agents such as pesticides, and heavy metals, as well
as by insects and animals during any of these stages
can also lead to a poor quality of the finished products
(Sahil et al. 2011).
Senna didymobotrya is a potential medicinal plant
and the medicinal values have been explored well in
many parts of the world by traditional practitioners
(Nagappan 2012). In Kenya the Kipsigis community
has been using this plant to control malaria as well
as diarrhoea (Korir, Mutai, Kiiyukia, & Bii 2012).
The Pokot peel the bark, dry the stem, and burn it
into charcoal that they use to improve digestibility
and palatability and to preserve milk (Tabuti 2007). In
addition, it has been used to treat the skin conditions
of humans and livestock infections as well (Njoroge
& Bussmann 2007). It is also used in the treatment of
animal diseases such as the removal of ticks (Njoroge
& Bussmann 2006). The plant leaves and roots are also
used as fish poison (Nyamwamu et al. 2015; Thangiah
& Ngule 2013).
In East and Central Africa, Senna root extract is
applied in the treatment of malaria, jaundice, intestinal worm, and ringworm (Nagappan 2012). The plant
is also used for the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, hypertension, haemorrhoids, sickle cell
anaemia, a range of diseases affecting women such as
inflammation of fallopian tubes, fibroids, and backache. Root decoction from this plant is used to manage
general poison due to its emetic and purgative effect
(Tabuti 2007).
Previous studies have isolated anthraquinones such
as chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, tarosachrysone,
aloe-emodin, fallacinol, rhein, and parientinic acid;
flavonoids such as quercetin, ombuin, apigenin, kaemferol, A pigenin-5,7,4-trimethyl ether; and flavonoid
glycosides such as isoguercitrin and kaempferol3-rhamnoside from Senna (Alemayehu, Abegaz,
Snatzke, & Duddeck 1989; Mahadevan, Upendra,
Subburaju, Elango, & Suresh 2002;. In the past,
researchers have used only one solvent in the S. didymobotrya extraction, for example, methanol (Jeruto
et al. 2017); solvent ratios using methanol:water 9:1
(Thangiah et al. 2013), dichloromethane:methanol
1:1 (Alemayehu, Tadesse, Mammo, Kibret, & Endale
2015); and sequential extraction using hexane, ethylacetate, dichloromethane, and methanol (Mining et al.
2014; Nyamwamu et al. 2015;. Research has not been
done to investigate the effect of different extraction solvents on yield, total phenolic and flavonoid content of
Senna didymobotrya plant roots. This study will compare root extract yield of diethyl-ether, methanol, and
aqueous solvents; phytochemical screening; and total
phenolic and flavonoid content of Senna didymobotrya
plant roots.
151
2014), and silymarin (Saleh et al. 2015), among others,
have been isolated from plants (Sofowora 2008).
The medicinal value of plants lies in some chemical
substances that produce definite physiological actions
on the human body. The most important of these compounds are alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic
compounds. Biological and pharmacological activities
of phytochemical compounds depend on factors such
as the ecological factors, age of the plant, species,
and method of extraction. Thus, each plant has different chemical composition, toxicity, and bioactivity
(Jeruto, Arama, Anyango, & Maroa 2017). The type
and amount of phytochemical compounds present usually differ from one part of the plant to another. This
explains why in traditional medicine, different parts
of the same plant may be used in treating different
diseases (Ngulde et al. 2013).
Senna didymobotrya belongs to the genus Senna
and family Fabaceae. It is a hairy, aromatic shrub
5–9 m tall. The plant flowers in each inflorescence
are arranged sequentially in raceme of bright yellow
petals. The fruit is a flat brown legume pod. Different ethnic communities in Kenya have various names
for the species didymobotrya, for example, in Meru,
it is called Murao/Kirao (Gakuubi & Wanzala 2012),
Senetwet in Nandi and Kipsigis (Jeruto, Lukhoba,
Ouma, Mutai, & Otieno 2008), Owinu/Obino in Luo,
and Ithaa/Muthaa in Kamba (Wagate et al. 2012). The
plant is used for the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, hypertension, haemorrhoids, sickle
cell anaemia, a range of diseases affecting women
such as inflammation of fallopian tubes, fibroids, and
backache, to stimulate lactation, and to induce uterine
contraction and abortion (Nyamwamu et al. 2015).
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Herbal medicines contain active ingredients that are
present in complex mixtures formulated as crude fractions of plants or combinations of plants. Herbal drugs
are widely accepted as an alternative treatment for
primary health care needs in both developing and
developed populations. However, herbal medicines
have a range of limitations including lack of evidence
of safety, efficacy, standardization, varying production practices and absence of regulatory standards
and implementation protocols (Chawla et al. 2013).
The quality issue of herbal drugs can be ensured by
conducting some important tests such as micro- and
macroscopic investigation, moisture content, exclusion of foreign organic matter, extractive values, ash
value, qualitative and quantitative chemical tests, chromatographic characterization, toxicological test, phytochemical evaluation, and microbial tests (Chawla
et al. 2013; Sahil, Sudeep, & Akanksha 2011; Yadav,
Mahour, & Kumar 2011).
Quality control of the medicinal plants starts right
at the source of the plant material. The phytochemical composition of the plant material and the resulting
quality can vary due to several factors including a
number of environmental factors such as geographical location, soil quality, temperature, and rainfall;
taxonomy, the time of collection, method of collection,
cultivation, harvesting, drying and storage conditions,
preparation and processing methods can also affect
composition. Contamination by microbes, chemical
agents such as pesticides, and heavy metals, as well
as by insects and animals during any of these stages
can also lead to a poor quality of the finished products
(Sahil et al. 2011).
Senna didymobotrya is a potential medicinal plant
and the medicinal values have been explored well in
many parts of the world by traditional practitioners
(Nagappan 2012). In Kenya the Kipsigis community
has been using this plant to control malaria as well
as diarrhoea (Korir, Mutai, Kiiyukia, & Bii 2012).
The Pokot peel the bark, dry the stem, and burn it
into charcoal that they use to improve digestibility
and palatability and to preserve milk (Tabuti 2007). In
addition, it has been used to treat the skin conditions
of humans and livestock infections as well (Njoroge
& Bussmann 2007). It is also used in the treatment of
animal diseases such as the removal of ticks (Njoroge
& Bussmann 2006). The plant leaves and roots are also
used as fish poison (Nyamwamu et al. 2015; Thangiah
& Ngule 2013).
In East and Central Africa, Senna root extract is
applied in the treatment of malaria, jaundice, intestinal worm, and ringworm (Nagappan 2012). The plant
is also used for the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, hypertension, haemorrhoids, sickle cell
anaemia, a range of diseases affecting women such as
inflammation of fallopian tubes, fibroids, and backache. Root decoction from this plant is used to manage
general poison due to its emetic and purgative effect
(Tabuti 2007).
Previous studies have isolated anthraquinones such
as chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, tarosachrysone,
aloe-emodin, fallacinol, rhein, and parientinic acid;
flavonoids such as quercetin, ombuin, apigenin, kaemferol, A pigenin-5,7,4-trimethyl ether; and flavonoid
glycosides such as isoguercitrin and kaempferol3-rhamnoside from Senna (Alemayehu, Abegaz,
Snatzke, & Duddeck 1989; Mahadevan, Upendra,
Subburaju, Elango, & Suresh 2002;. In the past,
researchers have used only one solvent in the S. didymobotrya extraction, for example, methanol (Jeruto
et al. 2017); solvent ratios using methanol:water 9:1
(Thangiah et al. 2013), dichloromethane:methanol
1:1 (Alemayehu, Tadesse, Mammo, Kibret, & Endale
2015); and sequential extraction using hexane, ethylacetate, dichloromethane, and methanol (Mining et al.
2014; Nyamwamu et al. 2015;. Research has not been
done to investigate the effect of different extraction solvents on yield, total phenolic and flavonoid content of
Senna didymobotrya plant roots. This study will compare root extract yield of diethyl-ether, methanol, and
aqueous solvents; phytochemical screening; and total
phenolic and flavonoid content of Senna didymobotrya
plant roots.
151