Advances in Phytochemistry, Textile and Renewable Energy Research for
Industrial Growth – Nzila et al. (Eds)
© 2022 Copyright the Author(s), ISBN: 978-1-032-11871-0
Open Access: www.taylorfrancis.com, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
Dyeing of cotton fabric with natural dye from Flavoparmelia caperata
Linet Jelagat ∗ & Jackson Cherutoi
School of Sciences & Aerospace Studies, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
Achisa C. Mecha
School of Engineering, Department of Chemical & Process Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
ABSTRACT: Natural dyes have a natural origin, while synthetic dyes are from organic molecules and are made
up of chemical compounds that may be harmful to human health due to their toxic nature. Textile industries have
been using synthetic dyes in colouring fabrics for a long period of time. Recently, natural dyes have become of
interest due to the health hazards associated with the synthetic dyes. The degradation of synthetic dyes produces
a lot of by-products that are associated with health hazards, whereas such hazardous compounds have so far not
been found in by-products of natural dye degradation. Flavoparmelia caperata is a lichen species that has been
evaluated for its anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic effects. This study focuses on the
application of dye from the lichen extract on a cellulosic fabric with and without a mordant. The dye was extracted
using boiling water method (BWM) and ammonia fermentation method (AFM) where both resulted in a brown
coloured extract. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of flavonoids, fixed oils, anthraquinones,
terpenoids, tannins, steroids and alkaloids. The dye was applied on a cotton fabric and assessed for colour
fastness properties to wash, light, and rub. The dyed fabrics were brown with extract from BWM and light purple
from AFM without a mordant, on mordanting the purple colour darkened. The extract from AFM mordanted
fabrics showed best results upon colour fastness tests to rubbing and washing of 3–5 while extracts from BWM
displayed best results on light of 5 against a standard grey scale of 1–5, which is above the acceptable levels of
3. Vinegar was used as a mordant. Flavoparmelia caperata is therefore a good source of phytochemicals and it
has potential for dyeing cotton fabrics.
Keywords: Natural dye, colour fastness, Flavoparmelia caperata
1 INTRODUCTION
The major environmental pollution today is from
industries, with textile industries being the largest contributors of liquid effluent due to the large amount of
water used in textile processing (Malik & Grohmann
2012). Although some other industries like paper and
pulp mills, distilleries and tanneries also produce
wastewater, textile industries are the largest producers
of aqueous wastes and dye effluents are discharged
from the dyeing process. It is estimation that globally 280,000 tons of textile dyes are released as textile
industrial effluent yearly. Apart from being beautiful,
dyes have disadvantages because they make living
things in water uncomfortable when discharged as
effluent into the environment. Effluents from industries containing synthetic dyes limit light penetrating
into water bodies, and hence affect the activities of life.
They also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen by
forming a thin layer on the water’s surface affecting
aquatic fauna.
∗ Corresponding author
Traditionally, the only source of colours was of natural origin but the extraction costs and the high rate
of instability of natural dyes initiated the development
and use of artificial dyes by Sir William Henry Perkin
in 1856 (Kalra, Conlan, & Goel 2020). The use of synthetic dyes from organic sources and aniline continued
in many sectors including textiles, pharmaceuticals,
and cosmetics until negative anxiety against these dyes
was reported by the University of Southampton in
2007 with a connection between some synthetic dyes
and hyperactivity in children. These include colourants
such as Sunset yellow FCF (E110), Quinoline yellow
(E104), Carmoisine (E122), Allura red (E129), Tartrazine (E102), and Ponceau 4R (E124), commonly
known as the Southampton six. Due to the influence
of dyes on human health, other bodies such as the European Union (EU), World Health Organizatio (WHO),
and United States Food and Drug Adminstration (USFDA) warned against the use of synthetic colourants
and this initiated research on natural dyes which are
environmentally friendly.
Dyes are chemical compounds that are attracted to
the substrate in a more or less permanent state giving
DOI 10.1201/9781003221968-16
125
Industrial Growth – Nzila et al. (Eds)
© 2022 Copyright the Author(s), ISBN: 978-1-032-11871-0
Open Access: www.taylorfrancis.com, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
Dyeing of cotton fabric with natural dye from Flavoparmelia caperata
Linet Jelagat ∗ & Jackson Cherutoi
School of Sciences & Aerospace Studies, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
Achisa C. Mecha
School of Engineering, Department of Chemical & Process Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
ABSTRACT: Natural dyes have a natural origin, while synthetic dyes are from organic molecules and are made
up of chemical compounds that may be harmful to human health due to their toxic nature. Textile industries have
been using synthetic dyes in colouring fabrics for a long period of time. Recently, natural dyes have become of
interest due to the health hazards associated with the synthetic dyes. The degradation of synthetic dyes produces
a lot of by-products that are associated with health hazards, whereas such hazardous compounds have so far not
been found in by-products of natural dye degradation. Flavoparmelia caperata is a lichen species that has been
evaluated for its anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic effects. This study focuses on the
application of dye from the lichen extract on a cellulosic fabric with and without a mordant. The dye was extracted
using boiling water method (BWM) and ammonia fermentation method (AFM) where both resulted in a brown
coloured extract. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of flavonoids, fixed oils, anthraquinones,
terpenoids, tannins, steroids and alkaloids. The dye was applied on a cotton fabric and assessed for colour
fastness properties to wash, light, and rub. The dyed fabrics were brown with extract from BWM and light purple
from AFM without a mordant, on mordanting the purple colour darkened. The extract from AFM mordanted
fabrics showed best results upon colour fastness tests to rubbing and washing of 3–5 while extracts from BWM
displayed best results on light of 5 against a standard grey scale of 1–5, which is above the acceptable levels of
3. Vinegar was used as a mordant. Flavoparmelia caperata is therefore a good source of phytochemicals and it
has potential for dyeing cotton fabrics.
Keywords: Natural dye, colour fastness, Flavoparmelia caperata
1 INTRODUCTION
The major environmental pollution today is from
industries, with textile industries being the largest contributors of liquid effluent due to the large amount of
water used in textile processing (Malik & Grohmann
2012). Although some other industries like paper and
pulp mills, distilleries and tanneries also produce
wastewater, textile industries are the largest producers
of aqueous wastes and dye effluents are discharged
from the dyeing process. It is estimation that globally 280,000 tons of textile dyes are released as textile
industrial effluent yearly. Apart from being beautiful,
dyes have disadvantages because they make living
things in water uncomfortable when discharged as
effluent into the environment. Effluents from industries containing synthetic dyes limit light penetrating
into water bodies, and hence affect the activities of life.
They also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen by
forming a thin layer on the water’s surface affecting
aquatic fauna.
∗ Corresponding author
Traditionally, the only source of colours was of natural origin but the extraction costs and the high rate
of instability of natural dyes initiated the development
and use of artificial dyes by Sir William Henry Perkin
in 1856 (Kalra, Conlan, & Goel 2020). The use of synthetic dyes from organic sources and aniline continued
in many sectors including textiles, pharmaceuticals,
and cosmetics until negative anxiety against these dyes
was reported by the University of Southampton in
2007 with a connection between some synthetic dyes
and hyperactivity in children. These include colourants
such as Sunset yellow FCF (E110), Quinoline yellow
(E104), Carmoisine (E122), Allura red (E129), Tartrazine (E102), and Ponceau 4R (E124), commonly
known as the Southampton six. Due to the influence
of dyes on human health, other bodies such as the European Union (EU), World Health Organizatio (WHO),
and United States Food and Drug Adminstration (USFDA) warned against the use of synthetic colourants
and this initiated research on natural dyes which are
environmentally friendly.
Dyes are chemical compounds that are attracted to
the substrate in a more or less permanent state giving
DOI 10.1201/9781003221968-16
125