by people to treat several diseases and infections and
others are used to induce child birth.
2.1 Datura stramonium plant species
Thorn apple or Jimsonweed are other names of Datura
stramonium plant, which is mostly grown in temperate and subtropical regions. It belongs to the family
Solanaceae and its leaves are irregularly undulate, soft,
and toothed. The flowers are trumpet-shaped and white
to creamy in colour (Ahad et al. 2012). The plant
takes a year to grow from 0.3 to 1.5 m tall and is
proved to have medicinal compounds such as tropane
alkaloids which also find applications in defence
industries (Iranbakhsh, Ebadi, & Bayat 2010). The
plant has many other biologically active compounds
such as atropine, scopolamine, tannin, saponin, glycosides, phenol, sterols, lignins, fats, carbohydrates,
and proteins. All these listed phytochemicals are normally found in different parts of the plant (leaves,
flowers, seeds, and roots) in varying quantities and
concentrations although studies have shown that leaves
have the highest concentration of these active principles (Gutarowska, Machnowski, & Kowzowicz 2013).
Based on the extraction method used to obtain plant
dye extracts, their bioactive ingredients may vary thus
leading to variations in the antibacterial properties of
the extract. A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of Datura stramonium done by Gaire
and Subedi (2013) clearly shows that ethanolic extracts
demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity compared
to aqueous and methanolic methods.Also, phytochemicals like saponins, steroids, alkaloids, and flavonoids
among others are normally common in ethanolic
and crude aqueous plant extracts which are responsible for the antibacterial activity (Sayyed & Shah
2014).
2.2 Ricinus communis plant species
Ricinus communis, the castor oil plant, is a species of
flowering plant in the Euphorbiaceae family. It is a soft
wooden small tree, widely spread all through the tropics and temperate regions of the world. Its leaves have
long petiole and palm-like lobed blades, the flowers
are categorised as male or female depending on their
arrangement at the top of the axis in panicles form.
The fruits of the plant are in three-chambered format,
there is a globose capsule with soft spines such that
after the capsules mature, they split open into three
cavities, thus expelling the seeds (Marwat et al. 2017).
The phytochemistry of the plant shows the presence of
the amino acids, fatty acids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, phytosterol, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponin,
tannins, insecticidals, ovicidals, and cytotoxic activity (Jena & Gupta 2012). The plant also exhibits a
number of pharmacological activities like anticonceptive activity, antidiabetic activity, antifertility effects,
anti-inflammatory activity, and antimicrobial activity,
thus demonstrating the required antibacterial properties against different bacterial strains. However, the
degree of bacterial activity exhibited by these plant
extracts is dependent on the solvent used during the
extraction process. This was well explored by Jena and
Gupta (2012), whereby hexane and methanol extracts
showed the highest antimicrobial activity as opposed
to other solvents like acetone, petroleum ether, and
water. A related study by Marwat et al. (2017) further confirmed that the antibacterial activity shown by
plant extracts primarily depends on the type of the solvent used. In this case, alcohol and water were used in
varying concentrations.
2.3 Galinsoga parviflora plant species
The plant grows well on fertile soils that are sunny
or shady and uncultivated. It normally grows up to
0.6 m high and belongs to the Asteraceae family.
The flowers produced are small headed with yellow
florist discs (Damalas 2008). The plant’s flowering
time is normally from May to September and it
bears fruits with hairy achenes. The squeezed liquid/juice from the plant is traditionally well-known
for treating wounds, whereas its roots give an excellent remedy against beetle bites. The phytochemistry
of the plant shows the presence of flavonoids, aromatic
esters, diterpenoids, caffeic acid derivatives, steroids,
and phenolic acid derivatives among others (Samar
Ali et al. 2017). The plant also exhibits a number
of pharmacological activities like antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, nematicidal, anti-inflammatory,
cytotoxic, urease, α-glucosidase, lipoxygenase, hepatoprotective, and hypoglycemic among others. All
these bioactive ingredients can be obtained from different plant parts with the help of various solvents.
A review done by Zameer and Yaqoob (2017) shows
that hexane extracts of Galinsoga parviflora demonstrated better antibacterial activity against selected
bacterial strains compared to methanol and water
extracts.
2.4 Medicinal dye extraction methods
The extraction process can be interpreted in a number of different ways based on how it is done and
the intended end use of the extracts among others.
According to Colvin (2018), extraction is the separation of the medicinally active component from its
parent source using selective solvents through suitable
standard procedures. The extraction of natural dyes for
antimicrobial activity from plants can be done in various ways depending on the character, the therapeutic
value, and the stability of the drug. Examples of some
of the methods are maceration, infusion, percolation
and decoction, Soxhlet extraction or hot continuous
extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or
sonication extraction, accelerated solvent extraction
(ASE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) (Jansirani, Saradha, Salomideborani, & Selvapriyadharshini
2014; Murugan & Parimelazhagan 2013; Nn 2015).
Prior to the extraction process, it is important to know a
number of possible basic parameters that can influence
95
others are used to induce child birth.
2.1 Datura stramonium plant species
Thorn apple or Jimsonweed are other names of Datura
stramonium plant, which is mostly grown in temperate and subtropical regions. It belongs to the family
Solanaceae and its leaves are irregularly undulate, soft,
and toothed. The flowers are trumpet-shaped and white
to creamy in colour (Ahad et al. 2012). The plant
takes a year to grow from 0.3 to 1.5 m tall and is
proved to have medicinal compounds such as tropane
alkaloids which also find applications in defence
industries (Iranbakhsh, Ebadi, & Bayat 2010). The
plant has many other biologically active compounds
such as atropine, scopolamine, tannin, saponin, glycosides, phenol, sterols, lignins, fats, carbohydrates,
and proteins. All these listed phytochemicals are normally found in different parts of the plant (leaves,
flowers, seeds, and roots) in varying quantities and
concentrations although studies have shown that leaves
have the highest concentration of these active principles (Gutarowska, Machnowski, & Kowzowicz 2013).
Based on the extraction method used to obtain plant
dye extracts, their bioactive ingredients may vary thus
leading to variations in the antibacterial properties of
the extract. A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of Datura stramonium done by Gaire
and Subedi (2013) clearly shows that ethanolic extracts
demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity compared
to aqueous and methanolic methods.Also, phytochemicals like saponins, steroids, alkaloids, and flavonoids
among others are normally common in ethanolic
and crude aqueous plant extracts which are responsible for the antibacterial activity (Sayyed & Shah
2014).
2.2 Ricinus communis plant species
Ricinus communis, the castor oil plant, is a species of
flowering plant in the Euphorbiaceae family. It is a soft
wooden small tree, widely spread all through the tropics and temperate regions of the world. Its leaves have
long petiole and palm-like lobed blades, the flowers
are categorised as male or female depending on their
arrangement at the top of the axis in panicles form.
The fruits of the plant are in three-chambered format,
there is a globose capsule with soft spines such that
after the capsules mature, they split open into three
cavities, thus expelling the seeds (Marwat et al. 2017).
The phytochemistry of the plant shows the presence of
the amino acids, fatty acids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, phytosterol, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponin,
tannins, insecticidals, ovicidals, and cytotoxic activity (Jena & Gupta 2012). The plant also exhibits a
number of pharmacological activities like anticonceptive activity, antidiabetic activity, antifertility effects,
anti-inflammatory activity, and antimicrobial activity,
thus demonstrating the required antibacterial properties against different bacterial strains. However, the
degree of bacterial activity exhibited by these plant
extracts is dependent on the solvent used during the
extraction process. This was well explored by Jena and
Gupta (2012), whereby hexane and methanol extracts
showed the highest antimicrobial activity as opposed
to other solvents like acetone, petroleum ether, and
water. A related study by Marwat et al. (2017) further confirmed that the antibacterial activity shown by
plant extracts primarily depends on the type of the solvent used. In this case, alcohol and water were used in
varying concentrations.
2.3 Galinsoga parviflora plant species
The plant grows well on fertile soils that are sunny
or shady and uncultivated. It normally grows up to
0.6 m high and belongs to the Asteraceae family.
The flowers produced are small headed with yellow
florist discs (Damalas 2008). The plant’s flowering
time is normally from May to September and it
bears fruits with hairy achenes. The squeezed liquid/juice from the plant is traditionally well-known
for treating wounds, whereas its roots give an excellent remedy against beetle bites. The phytochemistry
of the plant shows the presence of flavonoids, aromatic
esters, diterpenoids, caffeic acid derivatives, steroids,
and phenolic acid derivatives among others (Samar
Ali et al. 2017). The plant also exhibits a number
of pharmacological activities like antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, nematicidal, anti-inflammatory,
cytotoxic, urease, α-glucosidase, lipoxygenase, hepatoprotective, and hypoglycemic among others. All
these bioactive ingredients can be obtained from different plant parts with the help of various solvents.
A review done by Zameer and Yaqoob (2017) shows
that hexane extracts of Galinsoga parviflora demonstrated better antibacterial activity against selected
bacterial strains compared to methanol and water
extracts.
2.4 Medicinal dye extraction methods
The extraction process can be interpreted in a number of different ways based on how it is done and
the intended end use of the extracts among others.
According to Colvin (2018), extraction is the separation of the medicinally active component from its
parent source using selective solvents through suitable
standard procedures. The extraction of natural dyes for
antimicrobial activity from plants can be done in various ways depending on the character, the therapeutic
value, and the stability of the drug. Examples of some
of the methods are maceration, infusion, percolation
and decoction, Soxhlet extraction or hot continuous
extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or
sonication extraction, accelerated solvent extraction
(ASE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) (Jansirani, Saradha, Salomideborani, & Selvapriyadharshini
2014; Murugan & Parimelazhagan 2013; Nn 2015).
Prior to the extraction process, it is important to know a
number of possible basic parameters that can influence
95