205
Biopesticides and the Toolbox Approach
biopesticide and food preservative (Li and Chang, 2016). Basil oil contains
more than 200 chemicals such as linalool, estragole, and eugenol. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Commission have
accepted and classifed the components from basil (O. basilicum) oil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Carvacrol, linalool, and pulegone showed
excellent potency against thrips, melon fy, and turnip aphids (Sampson
et al., 2005). Basil oil and its major components trans-anethole, estragole, and
linalool are very potent against adult fruit fies Ceratitis capitata, Bactrocera
dorsalis, and Bactrocera cucurbitae (Chang et al., 2009). Electrophysiological
studies indicated that linalool inhibits both mammalian γ-aminobutyric acid
type A receptor (GABAAR) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR)
(Li et al., 2020), which may explain its insecticidal activity. Linalool is a
concentration-dependent, noncompetitive inhibitor on the GABAAR. The
half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) of linalool on the GABAAR and
nAChR was approximately 3.2 and 3.0 mM, respectively (Li et al., 2020).
Spinosad, a combination of two natural insecticides, well represents the
commercial possibilities for biopesticides, recently gaining a large market
share for protection of apples, pears, strawberries, and other high-value
crops. The residues left by spinosad are of low toxicity, and produce is considered safe for consumers, including infants and children, when the product
is applied in the manner specifed on the label. In the United States, spinosad has been approved for organic production. Spinosad is composed of
two spinosyn active forms, A and D, differing only by placement of a methyl
group (see Chapter 2, Figure 2.10). They are produced by soil-borne fungi
(Saccharopolyspora spinosa) which can also be used in fermentation culture to
produce the technical product. The use of fermentation to produce chemical control agents is another potential advantage for biopesticides since it
can reduce or eliminate the need for extensive chemical processing facilities
associated with pesticides based on petrochemicals.
In addition to Dow’s spinosad, Merck and other frms have developed
avermectins (Figure 12.1), macrocyclic lactones produced by fermentation of
naturally occurring soil bacteria (Streptomyces avermitilis) which are useful
for crop protection as well as treatment of livestock and pets for parasite and
disease control.
A number of specialty pesticide companies, such as Trécé, Certis USA, and
Marrone Bio Innovations (Table 12.1), have marketed new biopesticides, and
now larger companies such as Corteva Agriscience TM , Bayer, and BASF are
developing and/or marketing biopesticides along with conventional (second
generation) pest control chemicals. EPA has helped move the biopesticide
technology forward by offering a “fast track” for registration of reduced
toxicity pesticides. The newer bioproducts include fungicides, insect repellants and attractants (semiochemicals), insecticides, nematicides, herbicides,
and products from genetic manipulation. In China, India, and several other
developing economies, technologies for pest control are being developed
based upon farmers’ experience in those countries. In the Philippines, for
Biopesticides and the Toolbox Approach
biopesticide and food preservative (Li and Chang, 2016). Basil oil contains
more than 200 chemicals such as linalool, estragole, and eugenol. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Commission have
accepted and classifed the components from basil (O. basilicum) oil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Carvacrol, linalool, and pulegone showed
excellent potency against thrips, melon fy, and turnip aphids (Sampson
et al., 2005). Basil oil and its major components trans-anethole, estragole, and
linalool are very potent against adult fruit fies Ceratitis capitata, Bactrocera
dorsalis, and Bactrocera cucurbitae (Chang et al., 2009). Electrophysiological
studies indicated that linalool inhibits both mammalian γ-aminobutyric acid
type A receptor (GABAAR) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR)
(Li et al., 2020), which may explain its insecticidal activity. Linalool is a
concentration-dependent, noncompetitive inhibitor on the GABAAR. The
half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) of linalool on the GABAAR and
nAChR was approximately 3.2 and 3.0 mM, respectively (Li et al., 2020).
Spinosad, a combination of two natural insecticides, well represents the
commercial possibilities for biopesticides, recently gaining a large market
share for protection of apples, pears, strawberries, and other high-value
crops. The residues left by spinosad are of low toxicity, and produce is considered safe for consumers, including infants and children, when the product
is applied in the manner specifed on the label. In the United States, spinosad has been approved for organic production. Spinosad is composed of
two spinosyn active forms, A and D, differing only by placement of a methyl
group (see Chapter 2, Figure 2.10). They are produced by soil-borne fungi
(Saccharopolyspora spinosa) which can also be used in fermentation culture to
produce the technical product. The use of fermentation to produce chemical control agents is another potential advantage for biopesticides since it
can reduce or eliminate the need for extensive chemical processing facilities
associated with pesticides based on petrochemicals.
In addition to Dow’s spinosad, Merck and other frms have developed
avermectins (Figure 12.1), macrocyclic lactones produced by fermentation of
naturally occurring soil bacteria (Streptomyces avermitilis) which are useful
for crop protection as well as treatment of livestock and pets for parasite and
disease control.
A number of specialty pesticide companies, such as Trécé, Certis USA, and
Marrone Bio Innovations (Table 12.1), have marketed new biopesticides, and
now larger companies such as Corteva Agriscience TM , Bayer, and BASF are
developing and/or marketing biopesticides along with conventional (second
generation) pest control chemicals. EPA has helped move the biopesticide
technology forward by offering a “fast track” for registration of reduced
toxicity pesticides. The newer bioproducts include fungicides, insect repellants and attractants (semiochemicals), insecticides, nematicides, herbicides,
and products from genetic manipulation. In China, India, and several other
developing economies, technologies for pest control are being developed
based upon farmers’ experience in those countries. In the Philippines, for