Nickel [Ni, 28]
225
The median Ni concentration in bottled waters of the EU countries is 0.204 μg/L
and is lower than that in tap water, estimated to be 0.381 μg/L (Birke et al. 2010).
Various limits for maximum allowable concentration (MAC) have been set for Ni in
drinking water in different countries, from 20 to 100 μg/L. The highest proportion
of analyzed water samples (43%) in the United States contains Ni from 1 to 5 μg/L
(ATSDR 2002b). Elevated Ni levels in tap water may be a result of the corrosion of
Ni-containing alloys used in some water distribution systems. The guideline value
for Ni in drinking water is 70 μg/L (WHO 2011a).
Water pollution with Ni is usually reflected in its accumulation in bottom sediments. Its background contents in bottom sediments of Rhein and Vistula Rivers
are 46 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg, respectively (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1999). Fine
granulometric fraction of sediments in polluted rivers may contain highly elevated
amounts of Ni, up to around 300 mg/kg (Bojakowska et al. 2007). The nickel contents of surface-bottom sediments of harbor in Klaipeda (Lithuania) depend also on
granulometric composition and are as follows (in mg/kg, average and maximum,
respectively): 5.3 and 12.9 in sand and 4.2 and 18.4 in mud (Galkus et  al. 2012).
Sediments of Sergipe River estuary (Brazil) contain Ni from 0.3 to 28.2  mg/kg
(Garcia et al. 2011).
The assessment limits for Ni in sediments are established as follows (in mg/kg):
effects range low, 21; effects range median, 52; probable effect level, 36; severe effect
level, 75; and toxic effect threshold, 61 (EPA 2000, 2013). The Environment Canada’s
sediment-quality guidelines (USGS 2001) gave the following values for Ni in the
lake-bottom sediments (in mg/kg): threshold effect concentration, 22.7, and probable
effect concentration, 48.6.
Nickel may be accumulated in aquatic biota. Plankton of the Baltic Sea contains
Ni within the range of 0.16–16.6  mg/kg FW (Szefer 2002). Muscles of flounders
have Ni from 0.2 to 0.6 mg/kg, from clean and polluted waters of Finland seacoast,
respectively (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee 2007).
29.4 AIR
The concentrations of Ni in air vary highly from 0.9 to 120 ng/m 3 , in remote and
urban regions, respectively (Table 29.1). Air samples collected over the United States
in the last century contain Ni up to 68 ng/m 3 , and it has been suggested its decline
(ATSDR 2002b).
Nickel emission to the atmosphere is estimated to be 34 kt/yr, of which 29 kt/yr is of
natural origin (Nriagu and Pacyna 1988). Due to other calculations, Ni yearly emission
from natural sources is 8.5 kt, whereas from anthropogenic, it is 55.6 kt (ATSDR 2002b).
The main natural Ni sources are windblown dust and volcanic eruptions, and anthropogenic ones are mainly fuel oil and coal combustions, and Ni metal refining plants.
Nickel average deposition in EU countries is 10 g/ha/yr, and varies from 1.5 in
Finland to 36 in Italy (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1999). The natural aerial Ni
deposition on the Baltic Sea is estimated to be 5 t/yr, whereas from anthropogenic
sources, it is 100 t/yr (Matschullat 1997).
Nickel contents of forest moss (Pleurozium schreberi) sampled in 1975 and
2000 have decreased to 2.8-fold, which clearly indicate its smaller global emission