100
Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments
TABLE 14.2

Copper Contamination of Surface Soils (mg/kg)

Site and Pollution Source
Country
Maximum Content
Old mining area
Metal-processing industries
United Kingdom
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
2000
1089
2015
3700
Romania
1387
Russia a
4622
Sludged, irrigated, fertilized farmlands
United Kingdom
Netherlands
800
265
Poland
1600
Source: After compiled by Kabata-Pendias, A., Trace Elements in Soils and Plants, 4th ed., CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2011.
a Smelter on Kola Peninsula.
allowable Cu loading to arable soils has been established in the EU countries for
12 kg/ha/yr. Acceptable Cu contents in farmland soils of Germany was established,
accordingly to soil texture, as follows (in mg/kg): heavy loams, 100; medium loams,
60; and sand, 30 (Eckel et al. 2005).
The criteria for contaminated land (Dutch List 2013), following Cu concentrations
in soils and groundwater, are established (in mg/kg and μg/L) as follows: uncontaminated, 200 and 50; medium contaminated, 500 and 200; and heavily contaminated,
3000 and 800. Soil quality Cu levels are estimated, based on various criteria, within
the range of 100–3100 mg/kg.
Remediation of Cu-contaminated soils has been widely investigated. Commonly
applied techniques are based mainly on the addition of materials of a great capability for Cu adsorption, such as (1) organic matter; (2) Fe hydroxides; (3) carbonates;
(4) phosphates; and (5) clay minerals, mainly bentonite and vermiculite. Especially
nanoscale Fe particles have a high fixation capacity (Zhang 2003). However, all cited
remediation methods, do not limit completely the Cu phytoavailability. The best
remediation effects, as indicated by yield and chemical composition of lettuce, was
the application of high rate of peat and superphosphate (Wróbel 2012). Also, peat
applied together with liming significantly decreases the content of mobile Cu species
(Nowak-Winiarska et al. 2012).
Under microorganisms activities, Cu may be available to plants, even from
the remediated soils. Some bacteria, especially in the rhizosphere, may accumulate Cu, and thus control its availability (Wang et al. 2008). Bioremediation of
Cu-contaminated soils by actinomycetes, due to their very high resistance and great
bioaccumulation abilities is proposed (Amoroso and Abate 2012). Under the impact
of some endomycorrhizal fungi, Cu nanoparticles are formed at the soil–root interface and influence its availability (Manceau et al. 2008).