286
Xenopus
of ways to manipulate microgravity while simultaneously
permitting analytical profling of all sensorimotor circuits.
In addition, the ease of neuronal accessibility in Xenopus
can also be used to explore metabolic processes of neurons,
shedding light on energetic demands during computational
tasks. In summary, Xenopus constitutes a well-suited experimental system for neuroscientifc practice and will continue
to emerge as a source for a constant proliferation of our
knowledge about the nervous system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge fnancial support from the
Research Training Group 2175 and the Collaborative
Research Center 870 of the German Science Foundation
(CRC 870, RTG 2175).
REFERENCES
Aubert H. 1881. Über den Einfuß der Temperatur auf die
Kohlensäureausscheidung und die Lebensfähigkeit der
Frösche in sauerstoffoser Luft. Pfügers Arch Ges Physiol
26:293–323.
Behrend O., Branoner F., Zhivkov Z., Ziehm U. 2006. Neural
responses to water surface waves in the midbrain of the
aquatic predator Xenopus laevis. Eur J Neurosci 23:729–744.
Bestman J.E., Cline H.T. 2020. Morpholino studies in Xenopus
brain development. Methods Mol Biol 2047:377–395.
Bestman J.E., Ewald R.C., Chiu S.L., Cline H.T. 2006. In vivo
single-cell electroporation for transfer of DNA and macromolecules. Nat Protoc 1:1267–1272.
Bibikov N.G., Elepfandt A. 2005. Auditory evoked potentials from
medulla and midbrain in the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis.
Hear Res 204:29–36.
Birinyi A., Straka H., Matesz C., Dieringer N. 2000. Location of
dye-coupled second order and of efferent vestibular neurons
labeled from individual semicircular canal or otolith organs
in the frog. Brain Res 921:44–59.
Blackiston D.J., Levin M. 2013. Ectopic eyes outside the head in
Xenopus tadpoles provide sensory data for light-mediated
learning. J Exp Biol 216:1031–1040.
Blackiston D.J., Vien K., Levin M. 2017. Serotonergic stimulation induces nerve growth and promotes visual learning via
posterior eye grafts in a vertebrate model of induced sensory
plasticity. NPJ Regen Med 2:8.
Blum M., Ott T. 2018. Xenopus: An undervalued model organism
to study and model human genetic disease. Cells Tissues
Organs 205:303–313.
Branoner F., Chagnaud B.P., Straka H. 2016. Ontogenetic development of vestibulo-ocular refexes in amphibians. Front
Neural Circuits 10:91.
Carey D. 1999. The Dominion Wars: Book 2: Call to Arms. New
York: Pocket Books.
Charles E. 1931. Metabolic changes associated with pigmentary
effector activity and pituitary removal in Xenopus laevis. I.
Respiratory exchange. Proc Roy Soc 107:486–503.
Cline H.T., Kelly D. 2012. Xenopus as an experimental system for
developmental neuroscience: introduction to a special issue.
Dev Neurobiol 72:463–464.
Cochran S.L., Kasik P., Precht W. 1987. Pharmacological aspects
of excitatory synaptic transmission to second-order vestibular neurons in the frog. Synapse 1:102–123.
Combes D., Merrywest S.D., Simmers J., Sillar K.T. 2004.
Developmental segregation of spinal networks driving axialand hindlimb-based locomotion in metamorphosing Xenopus
laevis. J Physiol 559:17–24.
Constantine-Paton M., Cline H.T. 1998. LTP and activity-dependent synaptogenesis: the more alike they are, the more different they become. Curr Opin Neurobiol 8:139–148.
Constantine-Paton M., Law M.I. 1978. Eye-specif c termination
bands in tecta of three-eyed frogs. Science 202: 639–641.
Dahl, R. 1960. William and Mary. In Kiss Kiss. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf.
De Vidts S., Méndez-Olivos E., Palacios M., Larraín J., Mery D.
2019. Characterization of spinal cord damage based on automatic video analysis of froglet swimming. Biol Open, 8(12).
Dietrich H., Glasauer S., Straka H. 2017. Functional organization
of vestibulo-ocular responses in abducens motoneurons. J
Neurosci 37:4032–4045.
Dodd J.M., Landgrebe F.W. 1953. Assay of thyroid-stimulating
hormone, thyroid and thyroid-like substances on Xenopus
tadpoles. Nature 172:121–122.
Dong W., Lee R.H., Xu H., Yang S., Pratt K.G., Cao V., Song
Y.K., Nurmikko A., Aizenman C.D. 2009. Visual avoidance in Xenopus tadpoles is correlated with the maturation of visual responses in the optic tectum. J Neurophysiol
101:803–815.
Duncan J.S., Fritzsch B., Houston D.W., Ketchum E.M., Kersigo J.,
Deans M.R., Elliott K.L. 2019. Topologically correct central
projections of tetrapod inner ear afferents require Fzd3. Sci
Rep 9:10298.
Eccles J.C. 1944. Synaptic transmission in the spinal cord. Nature
153:432.
Elepfandt A., Seiler B., Aicher B. 1985. Water wave frequency
discrimination in the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. J Comp
Physiol A 157:255–261.
Elliott K.L., Houston D.W., Fritzsch B. 2015 Sensory afferent segregation in three-eared frogs resemble the dominance columns observed in three-eyed frogs. Sci Rep 5:8338.
Engert F., Tao H.W., Zhang L.I., Poo M.M. 2002. Moving visual
stimuli rapidly induce direction sensitivity of developing tectal neurons. Nature 419:470–475.
Ewald J.R. 1892. Physiologische Untersuchungen über das
Endorgan des N. Oktavus. Wiesbaden: Bergmann.
Falk J., Drinjakovic J., Leung K.M., Dwivedy A., Regan A.G.,
Piper M., Holt C.E. 2007. Electroporation of cDNA/morpholinos to targeted areas of embryonic CNS in Xenopus. BMC
Dev Biol 7:107.
Frank E., Westerfeld M. 1982. Synaptic organization of sensory
and motor neurones innervating triceps brachii muscles in
the bullfrog. J Physiol 324:479–494.
Fritzsch B. 1990. Experimental reorganization in the alar plate of
the clawed toad, Xenopus laevis. I. Quantitative and qualitative effects of embryonic otocyst extirpation. Dev Brain Res
51:113–122.
Fritzsch B., Elliott K.L., Pavlinkova G. 2019. Primary sensory
map formations refect unique needs and molecular cues
specifc to each sensory system. F1000Res 8:F1000 Faculty
Rev-345.
Gambrill A.C., Faulkner R.L., Cline H.T. 2018. Direct intertectal
inputs are an integral component of the bilateral sensorimotor
circuit for behavior in Xenopus tadpoles. J Neurophysiol.
119:1947–1961.
Galvani L. 1791. De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari
commentarius. Bologna. Translated by Foley, M.G. 1953.
Luigi Galvani: Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on
Muscular Motion. Norwalk CT: Burndy Library.
Xenopus
of ways to manipulate microgravity while simultaneously
permitting analytical profling of all sensorimotor circuits.
In addition, the ease of neuronal accessibility in Xenopus
can also be used to explore metabolic processes of neurons,
shedding light on energetic demands during computational
tasks. In summary, Xenopus constitutes a well-suited experimental system for neuroscientifc practice and will continue
to emerge as a source for a constant proliferation of our
knowledge about the nervous system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge fnancial support from the
Research Training Group 2175 and the Collaborative
Research Center 870 of the German Science Foundation
(CRC 870, RTG 2175).
REFERENCES
Aubert H. 1881. Über den Einfuß der Temperatur auf die
Kohlensäureausscheidung und die Lebensfähigkeit der
Frösche in sauerstoffoser Luft. Pfügers Arch Ges Physiol
26:293–323.
Behrend O., Branoner F., Zhivkov Z., Ziehm U. 2006. Neural
responses to water surface waves in the midbrain of the
aquatic predator Xenopus laevis. Eur J Neurosci 23:729–744.
Bestman J.E., Cline H.T. 2020. Morpholino studies in Xenopus
brain development. Methods Mol Biol 2047:377–395.
Bestman J.E., Ewald R.C., Chiu S.L., Cline H.T. 2006. In vivo
single-cell electroporation for transfer of DNA and macromolecules. Nat Protoc 1:1267–1272.
Bibikov N.G., Elepfandt A. 2005. Auditory evoked potentials from
medulla and midbrain in the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis.
Hear Res 204:29–36.
Birinyi A., Straka H., Matesz C., Dieringer N. 2000. Location of
dye-coupled second order and of efferent vestibular neurons
labeled from individual semicircular canal or otolith organs
in the frog. Brain Res 921:44–59.
Blackiston D.J., Levin M. 2013. Ectopic eyes outside the head in
Xenopus tadpoles provide sensory data for light-mediated
learning. J Exp Biol 216:1031–1040.
Blackiston D.J., Vien K., Levin M. 2017. Serotonergic stimulation induces nerve growth and promotes visual learning via
posterior eye grafts in a vertebrate model of induced sensory
plasticity. NPJ Regen Med 2:8.
Blum M., Ott T. 2018. Xenopus: An undervalued model organism
to study and model human genetic disease. Cells Tissues
Organs 205:303–313.
Branoner F., Chagnaud B.P., Straka H. 2016. Ontogenetic development of vestibulo-ocular refexes in amphibians. Front
Neural Circuits 10:91.
Carey D. 1999. The Dominion Wars: Book 2: Call to Arms. New
York: Pocket Books.
Charles E. 1931. Metabolic changes associated with pigmentary
effector activity and pituitary removal in Xenopus laevis. I.
Respiratory exchange. Proc Roy Soc 107:486–503.
Cline H.T., Kelly D. 2012. Xenopus as an experimental system for
developmental neuroscience: introduction to a special issue.
Dev Neurobiol 72:463–464.
Cochran S.L., Kasik P., Precht W. 1987. Pharmacological aspects
of excitatory synaptic transmission to second-order vestibular neurons in the frog. Synapse 1:102–123.
Combes D., Merrywest S.D., Simmers J., Sillar K.T. 2004.
Developmental segregation of spinal networks driving axialand hindlimb-based locomotion in metamorphosing Xenopus
laevis. J Physiol 559:17–24.
Constantine-Paton M., Cline H.T. 1998. LTP and activity-dependent synaptogenesis: the more alike they are, the more different they become. Curr Opin Neurobiol 8:139–148.
Constantine-Paton M., Law M.I. 1978. Eye-specif c termination
bands in tecta of three-eyed frogs. Science 202: 639–641.
Dahl, R. 1960. William and Mary. In Kiss Kiss. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf.
De Vidts S., Méndez-Olivos E., Palacios M., Larraín J., Mery D.
2019. Characterization of spinal cord damage based on automatic video analysis of froglet swimming. Biol Open, 8(12).
Dietrich H., Glasauer S., Straka H. 2017. Functional organization
of vestibulo-ocular responses in abducens motoneurons. J
Neurosci 37:4032–4045.
Dodd J.M., Landgrebe F.W. 1953. Assay of thyroid-stimulating
hormone, thyroid and thyroid-like substances on Xenopus
tadpoles. Nature 172:121–122.
Dong W., Lee R.H., Xu H., Yang S., Pratt K.G., Cao V., Song
Y.K., Nurmikko A., Aizenman C.D. 2009. Visual avoidance in Xenopus tadpoles is correlated with the maturation of visual responses in the optic tectum. J Neurophysiol
101:803–815.
Duncan J.S., Fritzsch B., Houston D.W., Ketchum E.M., Kersigo J.,
Deans M.R., Elliott K.L. 2019. Topologically correct central
projections of tetrapod inner ear afferents require Fzd3. Sci
Rep 9:10298.
Eccles J.C. 1944. Synaptic transmission in the spinal cord. Nature
153:432.
Elepfandt A., Seiler B., Aicher B. 1985. Water wave frequency
discrimination in the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. J Comp
Physiol A 157:255–261.
Elliott K.L., Houston D.W., Fritzsch B. 2015 Sensory afferent segregation in three-eared frogs resemble the dominance columns observed in three-eyed frogs. Sci Rep 5:8338.
Engert F., Tao H.W., Zhang L.I., Poo M.M. 2002. Moving visual
stimuli rapidly induce direction sensitivity of developing tectal neurons. Nature 419:470–475.
Ewald J.R. 1892. Physiologische Untersuchungen über das
Endorgan des N. Oktavus. Wiesbaden: Bergmann.
Falk J., Drinjakovic J., Leung K.M., Dwivedy A., Regan A.G.,
Piper M., Holt C.E. 2007. Electroporation of cDNA/morpholinos to targeted areas of embryonic CNS in Xenopus. BMC
Dev Biol 7:107.
Frank E., Westerfeld M. 1982. Synaptic organization of sensory
and motor neurones innervating triceps brachii muscles in
the bullfrog. J Physiol 324:479–494.
Fritzsch B. 1990. Experimental reorganization in the alar plate of
the clawed toad, Xenopus laevis. I. Quantitative and qualitative effects of embryonic otocyst extirpation. Dev Brain Res
51:113–122.
Fritzsch B., Elliott K.L., Pavlinkova G. 2019. Primary sensory
map formations refect unique needs and molecular cues
specifc to each sensory system. F1000Res 8:F1000 Faculty
Rev-345.
Gambrill A.C., Faulkner R.L., Cline H.T. 2018. Direct intertectal
inputs are an integral component of the bilateral sensorimotor
circuit for behavior in Xenopus tadpoles. J Neurophysiol.
119:1947–1961.
Galvani L. 1791. De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari
commentarius. Bologna. Translated by Foley, M.G. 1953.
Luigi Galvani: Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on
Muscular Motion. Norwalk CT: Burndy Library.