the deeper layers are coupled to the atmosphere
with respect to carbon storage on longer time scales.
The full three-dimensional ocean circulation
needs to be adequately represented in global
atmosphere–ocean general circulation models if
realistic projections of climate on decadal and
longer time scales are to be completed, including
projections of abrupt climate change. This level of
ocean complexity is also required for realistic projections of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere to be made and for the simulation of
the timing and regional impact of anthropogenic
climate change.
Although the first full-depth observations of the
oceans’ physical properties were made at the end
of the nineteenth century, it was not until the late
1950s that significant numbers of observations of
appropriate precision and accuracy became available. Only recently, with the advent of satellite
observations, has there been a means of routinely
observing the global ocean. Of particular importance has been the availability over the last decade
of satellite altimetry of sufficient accuracy to provide the first quasisynoptic global estimates of the
oceans’ near-surface circulation. It was against this
background that the World Ocean Circulation
Experiment (WOCE) was designed. An essential
task for WOCE was to produce the first quasisynoptic set of full-depth observations of the
global oceans for quantitatively defining the global
ocean circulation, and thus the oceans’ role in
storing and transporting climatically important
properties. These measurements would also be
used to develop and test ocean models and to provide a standard against which past and future
changes might be measured.
The ocean not only plays a fundamental role in
moderating and modifying the atmospheric climate, but it is also the environment within which
marine organisms live, and it strongly influences
the ocean boundaries. Thus it can be said to have
a climate itself that has a direct and important
impact on society’s use of the oceans, their living
resources and their coastal boundaries.
1.2.2 Air–sea fluxes
Transfers of properties between the ‘transient’
atmosphere and the ‘sluggish’ oceans lie at the very
heart of the climate system. The accurate modelling
of these transfers demands a detailed understanding of the dynamics of both the upper ocean and
SECTION 1 THE OCEAN AND CLIMATE
12
235 235 235
Outgoing
Long-wave
Radiation
235 W m –2
Incoming
Solar
Radiation
342 W m –2
Reflected Solar
Radiation
107 W m –2
Reflected by Clouds,
Aerosol and
Atmosphere
342 342 342
107 107 107
77
77 77 77
67 67 67
Absorbed by
Absorbed by
Absorbed by
Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere
Emitted by
Emitted by
Emitted by
Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere 165 165 165
30 30 30
40 40 40
Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric
Window Window Window
324 324 324
Back Back Back
Radiation Radiation Radiation
390 390 390
Surface Surface Surface
Radiation Radiation Radiation
350 350 350
40
78
Latent
Heat
24 24 24
168 168 168
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
78 78 78
Evapo- Evapo- Evapotranspiration transpiration transpiration
Greenhouse Greenhouse Greenhouse
Gases Gases Gases
324 324 324
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Reflected by
Surface
30
24 24 24
Thermals Thermals Thermals
Fig. 1.2.1 Schematic showing the atmospheric and surface processes determining the earth’s annual global mean
energy budget (from Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). Units are W m
92 .
with respect to carbon storage on longer time scales.
The full three-dimensional ocean circulation
needs to be adequately represented in global
atmosphere–ocean general circulation models if
realistic projections of climate on decadal and
longer time scales are to be completed, including
projections of abrupt climate change. This level of
ocean complexity is also required for realistic projections of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere to be made and for the simulation of
the timing and regional impact of anthropogenic
climate change.
Although the first full-depth observations of the
oceans’ physical properties were made at the end
of the nineteenth century, it was not until the late
1950s that significant numbers of observations of
appropriate precision and accuracy became available. Only recently, with the advent of satellite
observations, has there been a means of routinely
observing the global ocean. Of particular importance has been the availability over the last decade
of satellite altimetry of sufficient accuracy to provide the first quasisynoptic global estimates of the
oceans’ near-surface circulation. It was against this
background that the World Ocean Circulation
Experiment (WOCE) was designed. An essential
task for WOCE was to produce the first quasisynoptic set of full-depth observations of the
global oceans for quantitatively defining the global
ocean circulation, and thus the oceans’ role in
storing and transporting climatically important
properties. These measurements would also be
used to develop and test ocean models and to provide a standard against which past and future
changes might be measured.
The ocean not only plays a fundamental role in
moderating and modifying the atmospheric climate, but it is also the environment within which
marine organisms live, and it strongly influences
the ocean boundaries. Thus it can be said to have
a climate itself that has a direct and important
impact on society’s use of the oceans, their living
resources and their coastal boundaries.
1.2.2 Air–sea fluxes
Transfers of properties between the ‘transient’
atmosphere and the ‘sluggish’ oceans lie at the very
heart of the climate system. The accurate modelling
of these transfers demands a detailed understanding of the dynamics of both the upper ocean and
SECTION 1 THE OCEAN AND CLIMATE
12
235 235 235
Outgoing
Long-wave
Radiation
235 W m –2
Incoming
Solar
Radiation
342 W m –2
Reflected Solar
Radiation
107 W m –2
Reflected by Clouds,
Aerosol and
Atmosphere
342 342 342
107 107 107
77
77 77 77
67 67 67
Absorbed by
Absorbed by
Absorbed by
Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere
Emitted by
Emitted by
Emitted by
Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere 165 165 165
30 30 30
40 40 40
Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric
Window Window Window
324 324 324
Back Back Back
Radiation Radiation Radiation
390 390 390
Surface Surface Surface
Radiation Radiation Radiation
350 350 350
40
78
Latent
Heat
24 24 24
168 168 168
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
78 78 78
Evapo- Evapo- Evapotranspiration transpiration transpiration
Greenhouse Greenhouse Greenhouse
Gases Gases Gases
324 324 324
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Absorbed by Surface
Reflected by
Surface
30
24 24 24
Thermals Thermals Thermals
Fig. 1.2.1 Schematic showing the atmospheric and surface processes determining the earth’s annual global mean
energy budget (from Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). Units are W m
92 .