climate, with a clear imprint in terrestrial and marine
proxy records. Many of the physical mechanisms
driving these large cycles in ice volume are not well
understood. However, the pursuit to explain these
climate changes has greatly advanced our understanding of the climate system and its future response
to man-made forcing. New and better resolved proxy
records will improve our spatial and temporal picture
of the glacial cycles. Together with the advent of
comprehensive climate models able to simulate longer
periods of the glacial record, scientists will be able to
better resolve the interaction of the atmosphere,
ocean, biosphere, and ice sheets and the mechanisms
linking them to the astronomical forcing.
Nomenclature
e
eccentricity
r a
aphelion
r p
perihelion
d
18 O
oxygen isotope ratio (ratio of
18
O and
16
O relative to a standard)
e
obliquity
o
longitude of perihelion
See also
Oxygen Isotopes in the Ocean. Stable Carbon
Isotope Variations in the Ocean.
Further Reading
Bard E (2004) Greenhouse effect and ice ages: Historical
perspective. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 336: 603--638.
Berger A, Li XS, and Loutre MF (1999) Modelling
Northern Hemisphere ice volume over the last 3 Ma.
Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 1--11.
Budyko MI (1969) The effect of solar radiation variations
on the climate of the Earth. Tellus 5: 611--619.
Crowley TJ and North GR (1991) Paleoclimatology. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Hays JD, Imbrie J, and Shackleton NJ (1976) Variations in
the Earth’s orbit: Pacemakers of the ice ages. Science
194: 1121--1132.
Imbrie J and Imbrie KP (1979) Ice Ages, Solving the
Mystery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ko ¨ ppen W and Wegener A (1924) Die Klimate Der
Geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin: Gebru ¨ der Borntraeger.
Milankovitch M (1998) Canon of Insolation and the IceAge Problem (orig. publ. 1941). Belgrade: Zavod za
Udzbenike I Nastavna Sredstva.
Paillard D (2001) Glacial cycles: Toward a new paradigm.
Reviews of Geophysics 39: 325--346.
Saltzman B (2002) Dynamical Paleoclimatology. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Siegenthaler U, Stocker TF, Monnin E, et al. (2005) Stable
carbon cycle–climate relationship during the late
Pleistocene. Science 310: 1313--1317.
Spahni R, Chappellaz J, Stocker TF, et al. (2005)
Atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide of the late
Pleistocene from Antarctica ice cores. Science 310:
1317--1321.
Weertman J (1976) Milankovitch solar radiation variations
and ice age ice sheet sizes. Nature 261: 17--20.
442 PLIO-PLEISTOCENE GLACIAL CYCLES AND MILANKOVITCH VARIABILITY
proxy records. Many of the physical mechanisms
driving these large cycles in ice volume are not well
understood. However, the pursuit to explain these
climate changes has greatly advanced our understanding of the climate system and its future response
to man-made forcing. New and better resolved proxy
records will improve our spatial and temporal picture
of the glacial cycles. Together with the advent of
comprehensive climate models able to simulate longer
periods of the glacial record, scientists will be able to
better resolve the interaction of the atmosphere,
ocean, biosphere, and ice sheets and the mechanisms
linking them to the astronomical forcing.
Nomenclature
e
eccentricity
r a
aphelion
r p
perihelion
d
18 O
oxygen isotope ratio (ratio of
18
O and
16
O relative to a standard)
e
obliquity
o
longitude of perihelion
See also
Oxygen Isotopes in the Ocean. Stable Carbon
Isotope Variations in the Ocean.
Further Reading
Bard E (2004) Greenhouse effect and ice ages: Historical
perspective. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 336: 603--638.
Berger A, Li XS, and Loutre MF (1999) Modelling
Northern Hemisphere ice volume over the last 3 Ma.
Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 1--11.
Budyko MI (1969) The effect of solar radiation variations
on the climate of the Earth. Tellus 5: 611--619.
Crowley TJ and North GR (1991) Paleoclimatology. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Hays JD, Imbrie J, and Shackleton NJ (1976) Variations in
the Earth’s orbit: Pacemakers of the ice ages. Science
194: 1121--1132.
Imbrie J and Imbrie KP (1979) Ice Ages, Solving the
Mystery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ko ¨ ppen W and Wegener A (1924) Die Klimate Der
Geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin: Gebru ¨ der Borntraeger.
Milankovitch M (1998) Canon of Insolation and the IceAge Problem (orig. publ. 1941). Belgrade: Zavod za
Udzbenike I Nastavna Sredstva.
Paillard D (2001) Glacial cycles: Toward a new paradigm.
Reviews of Geophysics 39: 325--346.
Saltzman B (2002) Dynamical Paleoclimatology. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Siegenthaler U, Stocker TF, Monnin E, et al. (2005) Stable
carbon cycle–climate relationship during the late
Pleistocene. Science 310: 1313--1317.
Spahni R, Chappellaz J, Stocker TF, et al. (2005)
Atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide of the late
Pleistocene from Antarctica ice cores. Science 310:
1317--1321.
Weertman J (1976) Milankovitch solar radiation variations
and ice age ice sheet sizes. Nature 261: 17--20.
442 PLIO-PLEISTOCENE GLACIAL CYCLES AND MILANKOVITCH VARIABILITY