6. SOUND PRODUCTION AND DETECTION
187
produced by the prey animals result from simple locomotor behavior,
and the responses of the predators are nonspecific approaches.
A number of sounds are produced in some stressful situation.
Groupers, squirrelfish, jacks, and a variety of other species have been
described as doing so (Fish, 1954; Moulton, 1958; Tavolga, 1960). Approach of foreign objects, a poke of a stick, etc., are examples of such
stimuli. Whether the sound is indicative of alarm, fright, anger, annoyance, or other emotional state is not known. When the approach of another
fish stimulates sound production, then there is a likelihood of the sound
functioning as a warning call from a territory holder toward an intruder,
as in groupers ( Moulton, 1958; Tavolga, 1960), squirrelfish ( Winn et al.,
1964), toadfish (Tavolga, 1960; Gray and Winn, 1961), pinfish (Caldwell
and Caldwell, 1967), triggerfish (Salmon et al., 1968), and several other
forms listed by Winn (1964). Most of these interactions are probably
tonic or phasic in level, but the data on toadfish (Winn, 19f37) indicate
a more specific signal level communication.
Since ancient times, the relation of certain kinds of fish sounds to
spawning behavior has been known. This is especially true of members
of the croaker and drumfish family (Sciaenidae). In many parts of the
world, including the Florida coast, fishermen commonly listen for the
deep rattling sound of drumfish during their spring spawning migration.
Schneider and Hasler (1960) described the spawning sounds of the freshwater drum, Aplodinotus. The European sciaenid Corvinu has been
reported by Dijkgraaf (1947a) and by Protasov and Aronov (1960) as
producing sounds in connection with spawning behavior.
The codfish, Gadus callarias, and the haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus, have been reported to produce low frequency sounds during the
spawning season ( Brawn, 1961; Hawkins and Chapman, 1966).
The boat-whistle sounds of the toadfish, Opsanus, were thought to be
related to spawning or to territorial behavior (Fish, 1954; Fish and
Mowbray, 1959; Tavolga, 1958c, 1960). Gray and Winn (1961) and Winn
(1964, 1967) have presented data showing that the sounds appear to be
emitted by males only and serve to attract females to nesting sites. Winn
( 1967) also demonstrated the interactions between sounding territorial
toadfish.
Positive evidence of the function of fish sounds in reproductive
behavior have come from studies on freshwater minnows (Delco, 1960;
Winn and Stout, 1960; Stout, 1963), on a characid (K. Nelson, 1965),
on tidal zone species of gobies and blennies (Tavolga, 1956, 1958a,b),
and on certain cichlid fishes (Myrberg et al., 1965). Experiments involving playback of sounds to the fish were used to establish the fact that
sounds produced by courting males could attract females. It is probable
187
produced by the prey animals result from simple locomotor behavior,
and the responses of the predators are nonspecific approaches.
A number of sounds are produced in some stressful situation.
Groupers, squirrelfish, jacks, and a variety of other species have been
described as doing so (Fish, 1954; Moulton, 1958; Tavolga, 1960). Approach of foreign objects, a poke of a stick, etc., are examples of such
stimuli. Whether the sound is indicative of alarm, fright, anger, annoyance, or other emotional state is not known. When the approach of another
fish stimulates sound production, then there is a likelihood of the sound
functioning as a warning call from a territory holder toward an intruder,
as in groupers ( Moulton, 1958; Tavolga, 1960), squirrelfish ( Winn et al.,
1964), toadfish (Tavolga, 1960; Gray and Winn, 1961), pinfish (Caldwell
and Caldwell, 1967), triggerfish (Salmon et al., 1968), and several other
forms listed by Winn (1964). Most of these interactions are probably
tonic or phasic in level, but the data on toadfish (Winn, 19f37) indicate
a more specific signal level communication.
Since ancient times, the relation of certain kinds of fish sounds to
spawning behavior has been known. This is especially true of members
of the croaker and drumfish family (Sciaenidae). In many parts of the
world, including the Florida coast, fishermen commonly listen for the
deep rattling sound of drumfish during their spring spawning migration.
Schneider and Hasler (1960) described the spawning sounds of the freshwater drum, Aplodinotus. The European sciaenid Corvinu has been
reported by Dijkgraaf (1947a) and by Protasov and Aronov (1960) as
producing sounds in connection with spawning behavior.
The codfish, Gadus callarias, and the haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus, have been reported to produce low frequency sounds during the
spawning season ( Brawn, 1961; Hawkins and Chapman, 1966).
The boat-whistle sounds of the toadfish, Opsanus, were thought to be
related to spawning or to territorial behavior (Fish, 1954; Fish and
Mowbray, 1959; Tavolga, 1958c, 1960). Gray and Winn (1961) and Winn
(1964, 1967) have presented data showing that the sounds appear to be
emitted by males only and serve to attract females to nesting sites. Winn
( 1967) also demonstrated the interactions between sounding territorial
toadfish.
Positive evidence of the function of fish sounds in reproductive
behavior have come from studies on freshwater minnows (Delco, 1960;
Winn and Stout, 1960; Stout, 1963), on a characid (K. Nelson, 1965),
on tidal zone species of gobies and blennies (Tavolga, 1956, 1958a,b),
and on certain cichlid fishes (Myrberg et al., 1965). Experiments involving playback of sounds to the fish were used to establish the fact that
sounds produced by courting males could attract females. It is probable