WINE
TOXINS AND VENOMOUS AND POISONOUS MARINE ANIMALS
287
anus; the tubules become elongated by hydrostatic pressure so that
once through the anus they become long, extremely sticky threads in
which the attacking animal becomes ensnared. As noted by Endean
(1967) the process of elongation may split the outer layer of covering
cells thereby releasing a proteinaceous material which forms an
amorphous mass having strong adhesive properties. These elongated
threads, which may attain a length of several feet, separate from their
attachment and are left behind as the holothurian crawls away. The
autotomized parts are regenerated in time.
In some sea cucumbers, however, as in A c t i q y g u agaesizi Selenka,
the tubules do not become sticky, nor do they elongate, but they are
eviscerated in a somewhat similar manner and discharge from certain
highly developed structures filled with granules a toxin which is
capable of killing fishes and other animals. Evisceration may be
provoked by handling the animal, either in or out of the water, and
by excessive changes in temperature, pH and oxygen balance. The
relationship between evisceration and the discharge of the toxin is
not known, but injections of the extract holothurin from these tubules,
or the addition of the toxin into water containing live holothurians,
elicits the process. In still other sea cucumbers, as in Holothuria atru,
which do not possess Cuvierian tubules, the toxin may be discharged
through the body wall.
B. Chemistry and toxicology
It is well known that many echinoderms secrete from their integument, or sometimes abundantly over their body surfaces, a mucus which
appears to play an important role in the animals’ defensive armament.
Fontaine (1964) has demonstrated that in the brittle star, Ophiowmina
nigra (Abildgaard), the massive multicellular glands, which for the
most part are distributed over the external surfaces facing upwards or
laterally, discharge a viscous substance on stimulation that is characterized as a highly sulphated acid mucopolysaccharide. The combined
mucous secretions of this ophiuroid are acid mucopolysaccharides ; one
or more of the mucins contains amino sugars, sulphate esters, and occurs
complexed to protein. The pH of the mucus is approximately 1, which
probably makes it highly offensive to fishes and other marine animals.
While the biological activities of these mucins have not been thoroughly
investigated, Fontaine has shown that they do have some anti-coagulant activity.
A quaternary ammonium base, C7H7N02 (picolinic acid methyl
betaine), has been isolated from certain starfishes, sea urchins, and
TOXINS AND VENOMOUS AND POISONOUS MARINE ANIMALS
287
anus; the tubules become elongated by hydrostatic pressure so that
once through the anus they become long, extremely sticky threads in
which the attacking animal becomes ensnared. As noted by Endean
(1967) the process of elongation may split the outer layer of covering
cells thereby releasing a proteinaceous material which forms an
amorphous mass having strong adhesive properties. These elongated
threads, which may attain a length of several feet, separate from their
attachment and are left behind as the holothurian crawls away. The
autotomized parts are regenerated in time.
In some sea cucumbers, however, as in A c t i q y g u agaesizi Selenka,
the tubules do not become sticky, nor do they elongate, but they are
eviscerated in a somewhat similar manner and discharge from certain
highly developed structures filled with granules a toxin which is
capable of killing fishes and other animals. Evisceration may be
provoked by handling the animal, either in or out of the water, and
by excessive changes in temperature, pH and oxygen balance. The
relationship between evisceration and the discharge of the toxin is
not known, but injections of the extract holothurin from these tubules,
or the addition of the toxin into water containing live holothurians,
elicits the process. In still other sea cucumbers, as in Holothuria atru,
which do not possess Cuvierian tubules, the toxin may be discharged
through the body wall.
B. Chemistry and toxicology
It is well known that many echinoderms secrete from their integument, or sometimes abundantly over their body surfaces, a mucus which
appears to play an important role in the animals’ defensive armament.
Fontaine (1964) has demonstrated that in the brittle star, Ophiowmina
nigra (Abildgaard), the massive multicellular glands, which for the
most part are distributed over the external surfaces facing upwards or
laterally, discharge a viscous substance on stimulation that is characterized as a highly sulphated acid mucopolysaccharide. The combined
mucous secretions of this ophiuroid are acid mucopolysaccharides ; one
or more of the mucins contains amino sugars, sulphate esters, and occurs
complexed to protein. The pH of the mucus is approximately 1, which
probably makes it highly offensive to fishes and other marine animals.
While the biological activities of these mucins have not been thoroughly
investigated, Fontaine has shown that they do have some anti-coagulant activity.
A quaternary ammonium base, C7H7N02 (picolinic acid methyl
betaine), has been isolated from certain starfishes, sea urchins, and