2
MARCEL FLORKIN AND HOWARD S. MASON
teenth century, is an example of this kind and was only one among
many such studies. Severino, an anti-Aristotelian biologist, published
his "Zootomia democritaea" in Nuremberg in 1645, and this book may
well be considered the first systematic exposition of analogies in the
structure of animals which was to become the basis of the concept of
unity in design. The contributions embodied in numerous monographs
on vertebrates found their way into the "Anatome animalium" (1691)
of Blasius, the first systematic treatise of the science which had been
called comparative anatomy by Nehemiah Grew in 1675. Grew himself
had studied the relationship of various parts of plants throughout different groups.
The great comparative effort at the end of the seventeenth century
brought with it a wealth of anatomical knowledge. As often happens,
this new information was not only invaluable in itself but also became
the basis of a new line of speculative thought. Charles Bonnet (17201793) developed a new form of the Aristotelian idea of the "ladder of
nature" proceeding via molds, plants, insects, worms, fishes, birds,
mammals, and man, all variants of the prototype which was man. From
this concept there originated the Naturphilosophie which for a time
turned comparative anatomy into a barren field. The Naturphilosophen
had a Unitarian view the purpose of which was to define the basic
principle of nature. They were fond of "types," "schemata," "ideal
forms," etc. One of these was the idea of the uniformity of animal design, a view which Aristotle had had in mind and which was much
later reformulated by Goethe in his vertebral theory. Oken set this
theory out more categorically. For Oken, man is the crown of nature,
since he united in himself the five senses which enable him to learn
about nature. The whole animal world was, then, comprised of five
divisions of animals, each particularly endowed with one out of the
five senses united in man.
A new line of comparative research undermined the extravagances
of Naturphilosophie. When biologists began to study comparative embryology they obtained a much deeper knowledge of the relationships
between corresponding parts of organisms, and it became possible to
develop the concept of homology. For instance, Rathke (1743-1860)
discovered structures in embryos of birds and mammals which were
homologous with gill slits in fish embryos.
Another comparative study was that of the taxonomists who were
interested in classifying and naming living organisms. Such a classification must enable a naturalist to identify a plant or animal, dried or
preserved in alcohol. Hence it is unfair to reproach taxonomists for
giving so much attention to external details of structure. John Ray
MARCEL FLORKIN AND HOWARD S. MASON
teenth century, is an example of this kind and was only one among
many such studies. Severino, an anti-Aristotelian biologist, published
his "Zootomia democritaea" in Nuremberg in 1645, and this book may
well be considered the first systematic exposition of analogies in the
structure of animals which was to become the basis of the concept of
unity in design. The contributions embodied in numerous monographs
on vertebrates found their way into the "Anatome animalium" (1691)
of Blasius, the first systematic treatise of the science which had been
called comparative anatomy by Nehemiah Grew in 1675. Grew himself
had studied the relationship of various parts of plants throughout different groups.
The great comparative effort at the end of the seventeenth century
brought with it a wealth of anatomical knowledge. As often happens,
this new information was not only invaluable in itself but also became
the basis of a new line of speculative thought. Charles Bonnet (17201793) developed a new form of the Aristotelian idea of the "ladder of
nature" proceeding via molds, plants, insects, worms, fishes, birds,
mammals, and man, all variants of the prototype which was man. From
this concept there originated the Naturphilosophie which for a time
turned comparative anatomy into a barren field. The Naturphilosophen
had a Unitarian view the purpose of which was to define the basic
principle of nature. They were fond of "types," "schemata," "ideal
forms," etc. One of these was the idea of the uniformity of animal design, a view which Aristotle had had in mind and which was much
later reformulated by Goethe in his vertebral theory. Oken set this
theory out more categorically. For Oken, man is the crown of nature,
since he united in himself the five senses which enable him to learn
about nature. The whole animal world was, then, comprised of five
divisions of animals, each particularly endowed with one out of the
five senses united in man.
A new line of comparative research undermined the extravagances
of Naturphilosophie. When biologists began to study comparative embryology they obtained a much deeper knowledge of the relationships
between corresponding parts of organisms, and it became possible to
develop the concept of homology. For instance, Rathke (1743-1860)
discovered structures in embryos of birds and mammals which were
homologous with gill slits in fish embryos.
Another comparative study was that of the taxonomists who were
interested in classifying and naming living organisms. Such a classification must enable a naturalist to identify a plant or animal, dried or
preserved in alcohol. Hence it is unfair to reproach taxonomists for
giving so much attention to external details of structure. John Ray