was the first MEA concerning air pollutants and has been very successful,
resulting in Protocols for the control of sulfur, nitrogen and volatile organic
compounds emissions. More recently, in December 1999, the UN-ECE
‘Multi-Pollutant, Multi-Effect’ Protocol was signed. The Protocol simultaneously
addresses acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone, which continue
to have serious effects in the UN/ECE region. Furthermore, in tackling ammonia
emissions from agriculture, it is the first Protocol to the Convention to address
the agricultural sector.
The first success of the LRTAP Convention, in 1985, was the First Sulfur
Protocol which required signatories to reduce their national emissions of sulfur,
or their transboundary fluxes, by at least 30% as quickly as possible and at the
latest by 1993, using 1980 as the base year. The approach of an equal percentage
of reduction for every country proved unpopular with some countries and
difficult to justify on scientific grounds. Thus efforts were made to develop an
‘effects-based approach’ whereby reductions of emissions would be negotiated on
the basis of the effects of air pollutant loads. This led to the development of the
‘Critical Loads’ approach which was initially defined as ‘the highest load [of
pollutant] that will not cause chemical changes leading to long-term harmful
effects on the most sensitive ecological systems’. The concept was first used in
Canada and Sweden in the early 1980s to indicate deposition values below which
there would be no risk to lake ecosystems of differential sensitivity to
acidification. Canada used these ‘Target Loads’ in its negotiations with the
USA. In Europe the first outcome of the critical load approach was the Second
Sulfur Protocol, which was signed in 1994. The approach established differing
requirements for each country, the aim being to attain the greatest effect for the
environment at least overall cost. The focus of reduction strategy had therefore
changed from a focus on emission standards to the maintenance of a targeted air
quality.
In addition to the protocols of the LRTAP Convention, various EU Directives
and strategies (including the ‘Large Combustion Plant Directive’ and the
‘Community Strategy to Combat Acidification’) have also been developed. EU
legislation has the advantage that it is more binding than the Protocols of the
LRTAP Convention. EU strategies have also been based on effects-based
approaches, rather than being based solely on technological or economic feasibility.
UN/ECE, Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and its Protocols. ECE/EB.AIR/50,
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996.
UN/ECE, Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
F. C. Elder and T. Brydges, Effects of Acid Precipitation on Aquatic Regimes in Canada, The
Canadian contribution to the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. NATO Panel 3
Report, 1983.
W. Dickson, Some data on critical loads for nitrogen and sulphur deposition, in Critical Loads for
Nitrogen and Sulphur, ed. J. Nilsson, Miljo¨ rapport 1986:11, Nordic Council of Ministers,
Copenhagen, 1986, pp. 143—158.
D. Gillies, A Guide to EC Environmental Law, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, 1999.
A Perspective on Global Air Pollution Problems
47
resulting in Protocols for the control of sulfur, nitrogen and volatile organic
compounds emissions. More recently, in December 1999, the UN-ECE
‘Multi-Pollutant, Multi-Effect’ Protocol was signed. The Protocol simultaneously
addresses acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone, which continue
to have serious effects in the UN/ECE region. Furthermore, in tackling ammonia
emissions from agriculture, it is the first Protocol to the Convention to address
the agricultural sector.
The first success of the LRTAP Convention, in 1985, was the First Sulfur
Protocol which required signatories to reduce their national emissions of sulfur,
or their transboundary fluxes, by at least 30% as quickly as possible and at the
latest by 1993, using 1980 as the base year. The approach of an equal percentage
of reduction for every country proved unpopular with some countries and
difficult to justify on scientific grounds. Thus efforts were made to develop an
‘effects-based approach’ whereby reductions of emissions would be negotiated on
the basis of the effects of air pollutant loads. This led to the development of the
‘Critical Loads’ approach which was initially defined as ‘the highest load [of
pollutant] that will not cause chemical changes leading to long-term harmful
effects on the most sensitive ecological systems’. The concept was first used in
Canada and Sweden in the early 1980s to indicate deposition values below which
there would be no risk to lake ecosystems of differential sensitivity to
acidification. Canada used these ‘Target Loads’ in its negotiations with the
USA. In Europe the first outcome of the critical load approach was the Second
Sulfur Protocol, which was signed in 1994. The approach established differing
requirements for each country, the aim being to attain the greatest effect for the
environment at least overall cost. The focus of reduction strategy had therefore
changed from a focus on emission standards to the maintenance of a targeted air
quality.
In addition to the protocols of the LRTAP Convention, various EU Directives
and strategies (including the ‘Large Combustion Plant Directive’ and the
‘Community Strategy to Combat Acidification’) have also been developed. EU
legislation has the advantage that it is more binding than the Protocols of the
LRTAP Convention. EU strategies have also been based on effects-based
approaches, rather than being based solely on technological or economic feasibility.
UN/ECE, Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and its Protocols. ECE/EB.AIR/50,
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996.
UN/ECE, Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
F. C. Elder and T. Brydges, Effects of Acid Precipitation on Aquatic Regimes in Canada, The
Canadian contribution to the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. NATO Panel 3
Report, 1983.
W. Dickson, Some data on critical loads for nitrogen and sulphur deposition, in Critical Loads for
Nitrogen and Sulphur, ed. J. Nilsson, Miljo¨ rapport 1986:11, Nordic Council of Ministers,
Copenhagen, 1986, pp. 143—158.
D. Gillies, A Guide to EC Environmental Law, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, 1999.
A Perspective on Global Air Pollution Problems
47