The cost of air pollution to developing country cities can be very high. Using
dose—response relationships developed for health and particulate matter, the
URBAIR project calculated the costs of air pollution impacts on health in
Mumbai, Metro Manilla, Jakarta and the Kathmandu Valley caused by PM
exposure. The cost of excess deaths was calculated using the human capital
approach and chronic impacts based upon restricted activity days, asthma
attacks and respiratory symptom days. The health costs in the these cities varied
from US $2.84 million in Kathmandu to US $127 million per annum in Jakarta,
with Mumbai and Manila also showing health costs greater than US $100 million
per annum.
Air quality guidelines to protect human health have been produced by
international organizations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO),
regional organizations, such as EU and national governments (see Table 3 for
some examples). When comparing pollutant concentrations in cities of Asia to air
quality guidelines, the concentrations of particulate matter consistently register
as being of serious concern. For example, concentrations in Bangkok, Jakarta,
Manila, Beijing, Delhi and Seoul exceeded WHO guidelines by more than a
factor of two in 1992. In addition, SO
pollution in NE Asian cities, such as
Beijing and Seoul, also indicates a serious situation. Ozone causes ‘moderate to
heavy’ pollution in Jakarta and Beijing, showing similar exceedance of WHO
guidelines (up to a factor of two) to New York or Tokyo.
Impacts of gaseous air pollution on vegetation. Ozone and sulfur dioxide have
impacts on crops, forests and natural vegetation in both industrialized and
developing countries. The direct impacts of elevated SO
concentrations are
largely confined to urban areas, peri-urban areas and close to industrial sources
of pollution, although dry and wet deposition of resulting acidifying substances
occurs on a continental scale (see Section 2). Ozone, once formed, may be
transported in the atmosphere and affect much larger areas. Gaseous air
pollutants may affect vegetation through visible injury and/or effects on growth
and yield (invisible injury) and through subtle physiological, chemical or
anatomical changes. Visible damage to leaves may have direct impacts on the
market value of crops such as spinach and tobacco. In the 1960s it was widely
believed that yield could only be affected when visible injury was present, but a
large body of knowledge has now shown that significant yield losses can occur in
World Bank, Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Guidebook, World Bank (ISBN:
0-8213-4032-8). Washington, DC, 1997.
ASEAN, First ASEAN State of the Environment Report. ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, 1997.
Council of Ministers of the European Commission, Air Quality Assessment and Management,
Report 96/62/EC, Brussels, 1996.
US EPA, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards, Air Programs 40CFR
Part 50, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997.
US EPA, EAP’s Clean Air Standards — A Common Sense Primer, Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997.
H. Fujimaki, Key air pollutants in Japan, in Global Air Quality Guidelines, World Health
Organisation, Geneva, 1998.
M. R. Ashmore, Air pollution and agriculture, Outlook on Agriculture, 1991, 20 (3), 139—144.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
30
dose—response relationships developed for health and particulate matter, the
URBAIR project calculated the costs of air pollution impacts on health in
Mumbai, Metro Manilla, Jakarta and the Kathmandu Valley caused by PM
exposure. The cost of excess deaths was calculated using the human capital
approach and chronic impacts based upon restricted activity days, asthma
attacks and respiratory symptom days. The health costs in the these cities varied
from US $2.84 million in Kathmandu to US $127 million per annum in Jakarta,
with Mumbai and Manila also showing health costs greater than US $100 million
per annum.
Air quality guidelines to protect human health have been produced by
international organizations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO),
regional organizations, such as EU and national governments (see Table 3 for
some examples). When comparing pollutant concentrations in cities of Asia to air
quality guidelines, the concentrations of particulate matter consistently register
as being of serious concern. For example, concentrations in Bangkok, Jakarta,
Manila, Beijing, Delhi and Seoul exceeded WHO guidelines by more than a
factor of two in 1992. In addition, SO
pollution in NE Asian cities, such as
Beijing and Seoul, also indicates a serious situation. Ozone causes ‘moderate to
heavy’ pollution in Jakarta and Beijing, showing similar exceedance of WHO
guidelines (up to a factor of two) to New York or Tokyo.
Impacts of gaseous air pollution on vegetation. Ozone and sulfur dioxide have
impacts on crops, forests and natural vegetation in both industrialized and
developing countries. The direct impacts of elevated SO
concentrations are
largely confined to urban areas, peri-urban areas and close to industrial sources
of pollution, although dry and wet deposition of resulting acidifying substances
occurs on a continental scale (see Section 2). Ozone, once formed, may be
transported in the atmosphere and affect much larger areas. Gaseous air
pollutants may affect vegetation through visible injury and/or effects on growth
and yield (invisible injury) and through subtle physiological, chemical or
anatomical changes. Visible damage to leaves may have direct impacts on the
market value of crops such as spinach and tobacco. In the 1960s it was widely
believed that yield could only be affected when visible injury was present, but a
large body of knowledge has now shown that significant yield losses can occur in
World Bank, Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Guidebook, World Bank (ISBN:
0-8213-4032-8). Washington, DC, 1997.
ASEAN, First ASEAN State of the Environment Report. ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, 1997.
Council of Ministers of the European Commission, Air Quality Assessment and Management,
Report 96/62/EC, Brussels, 1996.
US EPA, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards, Air Programs 40CFR
Part 50, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997.
US EPA, EAP’s Clean Air Standards — A Common Sense Primer, Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997.
H. Fujimaki, Key air pollutants in Japan, in Global Air Quality Guidelines, World Health
Organisation, Geneva, 1998.
M. R. Ashmore, Air pollution and agriculture, Outlook on Agriculture, 1991, 20 (3), 139—144.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
30