Estimates of the cost of defensive expenditure to deal with long-term
environmental damage have been made for the United Kingdom and Sweden
amongst a number of other countries. They represent a significant cost
component and are indicative of the pollution that results from the level of
economic activity. They are shown in Figure 3.
Air pollution costs are estimated on the basis of emission data for sulfur
dioxide (SO
), nitrogen oxides (NO
V
), particulates, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO). For the United Kingdom defensive
expenditure on air pollution represents about 80 per cent of total defensive
expenditures; in Sweden the percentage for air pollution does not reach 50 per
cent of the total in any year and may be, in some years, slightly less than 30 per
cent. This is due, in part, to large differences in national fuel mixes between the
two countries.
Spectrum of Air Pollutants
The major air pollutants in industrialized or high-income countries arise mainly
from combustion processes but also from industrial processes (chemical,
metallurgical and construction), agricultural practices and abrasion and wear
from vehicles. They include:
E carbon monoxide
E sulfur dioxide
E nitrogen oxides
E ammonia
E ozone
E fine particulates
E Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) including organic pollutants such as
benzene and buta-1,3-diene
E heavy metals
These are by no means all of the significant pollutants emitted to air; exhaust
gases from petrol engines may contain over 170 compounds not originally
present in the petrol!
Air Pollution in Developing Countries
Developed countries use five times more energy on a per capita basis than
less-developed countries. High-income countries of the World, with only 15 per
cent of the World’s population, use half its annual commercial energy. This
means that atmospheric pollution from the major sources of economic activity is
far less in developing countries than in developed countries but three qualifications
need to be borne in mind:
E large urban centres in developing countries have formidable air pollution
IBRD, World Development Indicators, World Bank, Washington, DC, 2001.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
24
environmental damage have been made for the United Kingdom and Sweden
amongst a number of other countries. They represent a significant cost
component and are indicative of the pollution that results from the level of
economic activity. They are shown in Figure 3.
Air pollution costs are estimated on the basis of emission data for sulfur
dioxide (SO
), nitrogen oxides (NO
V
), particulates, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO). For the United Kingdom defensive
expenditure on air pollution represents about 80 per cent of total defensive
expenditures; in Sweden the percentage for air pollution does not reach 50 per
cent of the total in any year and may be, in some years, slightly less than 30 per
cent. This is due, in part, to large differences in national fuel mixes between the
two countries.
Spectrum of Air Pollutants
The major air pollutants in industrialized or high-income countries arise mainly
from combustion processes but also from industrial processes (chemical,
metallurgical and construction), agricultural practices and abrasion and wear
from vehicles. They include:
E carbon monoxide
E sulfur dioxide
E nitrogen oxides
E ammonia
E ozone
E fine particulates
E Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) including organic pollutants such as
benzene and buta-1,3-diene
E heavy metals
These are by no means all of the significant pollutants emitted to air; exhaust
gases from petrol engines may contain over 170 compounds not originally
present in the petrol!
Air Pollution in Developing Countries
Developed countries use five times more energy on a per capita basis than
less-developed countries. High-income countries of the World, with only 15 per
cent of the World’s population, use half its annual commercial energy. This
means that atmospheric pollution from the major sources of economic activity is
far less in developing countries than in developed countries but three qualifications
need to be borne in mind:
E large urban centres in developing countries have formidable air pollution
IBRD, World Development Indicators, World Bank, Washington, DC, 2001.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
24