46
being replaced. These could be nitrogen, phosphate, water, a combination of these,
or possibly other factors. Therefore, the CO 2 enrichment hypothesis does not seem
to explain the encroachment of woody legumes or other woody plants into the
southwestern semiarid grasslands or other grasslands. Another factor or factors
seem to be suggested.
References
Adams HD et al (2009) Temperature sensitivity of drought-induced tree mortality portends
increased regional die-off under global-change-type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci
106:7063–7066
Archer S (1994) Woody plant encroachment into southwestern grasslands and savannas: rates,
patterns and proximate causes. In: Vavra M, Laycock WA, Pieper RD (eds) Ecological implications of livestock herbivory in the West. Society for Range Management, Denver, pp 13–69
Archer S (1995) Tree-grass dynamics in a Prosopis -thronscrub savanna parkland: reconstructing
the past and predicting the future. Ecoscience 2:83–99
Archer SR, Schimel DS, Holland EH (1995) Mechanisms of shrubland expansion: land use, climate or CO 2 . Climate Change 29:91–99
Bahre CJ, Shelton ML (1993) Historic vegetation change, mesquite increases, and climate in
southeastern Arizona. J Biogeogr 20:489–504
Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2006) Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems, 4th edn.
Blackwell, Malden, MA
Berger A, Loutre MF (2002) An exceptionally long interglacial ahead? Science 297:1287–1288
Betancourt JL, Van Devender TR, Martin PS (1990) Synthesis and prospectus. In: Betancourt JL,
Van Devender TR, Martin PS (eds) Packrat Middens: The last 40,000 years of biotic change.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp 435–447
Breshears DD, Cobb NS, Rich PM, Price KP, Allen CD (2005) Regional vegetation die-off in
response to global-change type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:15144–15148
Idso SB (1992) Shrubland expansion in the American southwest. Climate Change 22:85–86
Imbrie J, Imbrie KP (1979) Ice ages: solving the mystery. Enslow, Short Hills, NJ
Johnson HB, Polley HW, Mayeux HS (1993) Increasing CO 2 and plant-plant interactions: effects
on natural vegetation. Vegetatio 104–105:157–170
Kane JM, Meinhardt KA, Chang T, Cardall BL, Michalet R, Whitham TG (2011) Drought-induced
mortality of a foundation species (Juniperus monosperma) promotes positive afterlife effects in
understory vegetation. Plant Ecol 212:733–741
Kunzig R, Block I (2011) World without ice. Natl Geographic 10:90–109
Mackenzie FT (2003) Our changing planet: an introduction to Earth system science and global
environmental change. Prentice Hall-Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
Martin PS (1999) Deep history and a wilder West. In: Robichaux RH (ed) Ecology of the Sonoran
Desert plants and plant communities. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp 255–290
Mayeux HS, Johnson HB, Polley HW (1991) Global change and vegetation dynamics. In: James
LF, Evans JO, Ralphs MH, Sigler BJ (eds) Noxious range weeds. Westview Press, Boulder,
Colorado, pp 62–74
McDowell PF, Webb T III, Bartlein PJ (1995) Long-term environmental change. In: Powell TM,
Steele JH (eds) Ecological time series. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 327–370
Miller RF, Wigand PE (1994) Holocene changes in semiarid pinyon-juniper woodlands: response
to climate, fi re, and human activities in the Great Basin. Bioscience 44:465–474
Morgan JA, Milchunas DG, LeCain DR, West M, Mosier AR (2007) Carbon dioxide enrichment
alters plant community structure and accelerates shrub growth in the shortgrass steppe. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 104:14724–14729
7 Global Climate Change
being replaced. These could be nitrogen, phosphate, water, a combination of these,
or possibly other factors. Therefore, the CO 2 enrichment hypothesis does not seem
to explain the encroachment of woody legumes or other woody plants into the
southwestern semiarid grasslands or other grasslands. Another factor or factors
seem to be suggested.
References
Adams HD et al (2009) Temperature sensitivity of drought-induced tree mortality portends
increased regional die-off under global-change-type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci
106:7063–7066
Archer S (1994) Woody plant encroachment into southwestern grasslands and savannas: rates,
patterns and proximate causes. In: Vavra M, Laycock WA, Pieper RD (eds) Ecological implications of livestock herbivory in the West. Society for Range Management, Denver, pp 13–69
Archer S (1995) Tree-grass dynamics in a Prosopis -thronscrub savanna parkland: reconstructing
the past and predicting the future. Ecoscience 2:83–99
Archer SR, Schimel DS, Holland EH (1995) Mechanisms of shrubland expansion: land use, climate or CO 2 . Climate Change 29:91–99
Bahre CJ, Shelton ML (1993) Historic vegetation change, mesquite increases, and climate in
southeastern Arizona. J Biogeogr 20:489–504
Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2006) Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems, 4th edn.
Blackwell, Malden, MA
Berger A, Loutre MF (2002) An exceptionally long interglacial ahead? Science 297:1287–1288
Betancourt JL, Van Devender TR, Martin PS (1990) Synthesis and prospectus. In: Betancourt JL,
Van Devender TR, Martin PS (eds) Packrat Middens: The last 40,000 years of biotic change.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp 435–447
Breshears DD, Cobb NS, Rich PM, Price KP, Allen CD (2005) Regional vegetation die-off in
response to global-change type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:15144–15148
Idso SB (1992) Shrubland expansion in the American southwest. Climate Change 22:85–86
Imbrie J, Imbrie KP (1979) Ice ages: solving the mystery. Enslow, Short Hills, NJ
Johnson HB, Polley HW, Mayeux HS (1993) Increasing CO 2 and plant-plant interactions: effects
on natural vegetation. Vegetatio 104–105:157–170
Kane JM, Meinhardt KA, Chang T, Cardall BL, Michalet R, Whitham TG (2011) Drought-induced
mortality of a foundation species (Juniperus monosperma) promotes positive afterlife effects in
understory vegetation. Plant Ecol 212:733–741
Kunzig R, Block I (2011) World without ice. Natl Geographic 10:90–109
Mackenzie FT (2003) Our changing planet: an introduction to Earth system science and global
environmental change. Prentice Hall-Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
Martin PS (1999) Deep history and a wilder West. In: Robichaux RH (ed) Ecology of the Sonoran
Desert plants and plant communities. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp 255–290
Mayeux HS, Johnson HB, Polley HW (1991) Global change and vegetation dynamics. In: James
LF, Evans JO, Ralphs MH, Sigler BJ (eds) Noxious range weeds. Westview Press, Boulder,
Colorado, pp 62–74
McDowell PF, Webb T III, Bartlein PJ (1995) Long-term environmental change. In: Powell TM,
Steele JH (eds) Ecological time series. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 327–370
Miller RF, Wigand PE (1994) Holocene changes in semiarid pinyon-juniper woodlands: response
to climate, fi re, and human activities in the Great Basin. Bioscience 44:465–474
Morgan JA, Milchunas DG, LeCain DR, West M, Mosier AR (2007) Carbon dioxide enrichment
alters plant community structure and accelerates shrub growth in the shortgrass steppe. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 104:14724–14729
7 Global Climate Change